liiiiii 


HI 


'•it 


I 


i 


m 


LIBRAKY 

STATE  TCACHEM  OCX-LEO*. 
SANTA    BARBARA.   CALIFORNIA 


z.% 


/%% 


* 


8888e©©@©S888S8S©SS®S®®8®®®S®®®®®®®S®S®®©® 

«  . ■  S8 

® 

© 

© 
© 

© 

i 

© 


THE  ORIENTAL 
RUG  BOOK 

BY 

MARY   CHURCHILL  RIPLEY 

WITH   ONE   HUNDRED   AND  SIXTY- 
FOUR  ILLUSTRATIONS 


V  'ok  V1  V*  V5<S  'oS 

©8® 


• 


NEW  YORK 
FREDERICK  A.  STOKES   COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 


® 
® 
® 
© 
© 
© 
© 
© 
© 
© 
© 


© 


© 
© 
© 
© 

© 
© 


© 
© 
© 


© 


S8S8S3©83S88S®S®®S8Se88888SSS8®e®SS®SSS8Si 


"  And  men,  through  novel  spheres  of  thought 
Still  moving  after  truths  long  sought, 
Will  learn  new  things  when  I  am  not." 

—  Tennyson. 


Copyright,  1904, 

By  Frederick  A.  Stokes  Company. 

Published  in  November,   1904. 


MANUAL  •'  •     •  rMJFORM* 


IYJ(  I  1 « 

R5 


PREFACE 

THE  rugs  collected  for  the  illustration  of  this  book 
have  been  authenticated  and  described  by  Oriental 
lovers  of  the  weaver's  art,  who  have  materially  aided 
in  gathering,  for  purposes  of  comparative  study, 
specimens  that  they  consider  typical  and  interesting, 
At  the  author's  request  they  have  kindly  signed  the 
short  statements  they  have  made  in  regard  to  each 
individual  rug.  It  is  her  earnest  hope  that  by  so  doihg 
they  may  secure  for  this  book  the  consideration  of 
those  who  desire,  from  the  view-point  of  the  Occi- 
dental home,  to  make  an  analytical  study  of  the  rugs 
in  their  possession,  that  through  them  they  may  be 
led  to  a  fuller  comprehension  and  appreciation  of  the 
thought-life  of  the  Orient. 

Although  to  a  certain  extent  thought  has  dropped 
out  of  the  ornament  we  now  call  historic,  it  is  never- 
theless true  that  a  remnant  of  meaning  exists  in 
Oriental  patterns,  which  may  be  used  to  interpret 
the  significance  of  forms  and  symbols  employed 
by  one  and  another  people  to  express  primitive 
belief.  Comparatively  definite  knowledge  is  obtain- 
able of  the  forms  chosen  to  illustrate  such  belief. 
These  forms  were  different  in  different  places,  and 
jjafter  a  while  the  symbols  which  originally  stood  for 
thought  became  designs  and    later  merely  ornament. 


VI 


PREFACE 


During  the  change,  however,  from  symbol  to  orna- 
ment, certain  tribes  and  peoples  adhered  to  the  de- 
vices that  had  become  national  and  tribal,  and  to  the 
present  day,  in  the  places  where  once  the  great  reli- 
gions had  their  birth,  may  be  found  traces  of  ancient 
symbols  in  the  most  modern  weaving. 

A  great  amount  of  unattached  information  is  afloat 
at  the  present  time,  and  it  is  necessary  to  separate 
and  sift  it  before  forming  definite  opinions.  Such 
should  be  based  as  nearly  as  possible  upon  facts : 
facts  accepted  as  such  by  governments  who  have  sent 
scholars  to  make  independent  investigations  in  the 
Orient ;  facts  accepted  by  men  who  both  ethnographi- 
cally  and  from  a  religious  point  of  view  have  studied 
th*e  thought-life  of  primitive  people  everywhere;  facts 
which  are  but  as  fragments  as  they  stand  related  to  all 
that  there  remains  to  know  and  which  future  years  will 
reveal.  Perchance,  however,  when  the  door  is  flung 
wide-open  and  we  are  asked  to  enter  the  Eastern 
paradise  of  interpreted  thought,  we  may  look  back 
longingly  to  the  time  when  each  one  of  us  in  turn  en- 
deavoured to  fit  his  own  magic  key  to  its  resisting  lock. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

Foreword 

PAGE 
XV 

I. 

Tents,  Temples,  and  Tombs 

I 

II. 

Shapes  and  Uses  of  Oriental  Rug! 

9 

III. 

Bibliography 

21 

IV. 

Chart  System  of  Study 

25 

V. 

Materials 

31 

VI. 

Symbolism  of  Colour 

38 

VII. 

Application  of  Colour.     Dyes 

45 

VIII. 

Looms,  Warp  and  Woof 

5o 

IX. 

The  Knot-Carpet 

55 

X. 

Geography  of  the  Rug 

59 

XI. 

Religion 

66 

XII. 

Migration  of  Pattern 

77 

XIII. 

Designs 

84 

XIV. 

World-Ideas 

89 

XV. 

Turkish  Rugs 

93 

XVI. 

Region  of  the  Great  Rivers 

129 

XVII. 

Sacred  Mountain 

151 

XVIII. 

Caucasian  Rugs 

159 

XIX. 

Persian  Rugs 

172 

XX. 

Turcoman  Rugs 

206 

XXI. 

Indian  Rugs 

228 

XXII. 

Legends  and  Myths 

241 

XXIII. 

Calligraphy  Used  in  Ornamentation  of  Rugs 

283 

XXIV. 

Vitality  in  Primitive  Designs 

294 

•*' 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Rug- Plates  in  Colour. 


Persian  Silk  Rug 

Frotitispiece 

Facing  PAGE 

Asia  Minor  Prayer-rug  . 

.  xviii 

Caucasian  Rug 

.       28 

Hamadan  Rug 

•        56 

Beluchistan  Rug 

-     88 

Bokhara  (Tekke  Turcoman)  Rug 

.   108 

Samarkand  Rug 

.'178 

Chinese  Rug 

.  240 

Rug-Plates  in  Black  and  White, 


Facing 

r  PAGE 

I     Kiz-Khilim  Rug    .             .                                             2 

II     Khilim  Rug 

8 

III     Kashan  Silk  Rug  . 

18 

IV     Iran  Rug 

22 

V    Kulah  Prayer-rug  . 

24 

VI     Antique  Greek  Rug 

40 

VII     Asia  Minor  Rug    . 

44 

"Ill     Ghiordez  Rug 

■     48 

IX     Shiraz  Rug 

•     52 

1X     Shiraz  Rug 

•     58 

IX 


LIST    OF     ILLUSTRATIONS 


Facing  page 


XI 

Asia  Minor  Rug 

64 

XII 

Sixteenth  Century  Rug 

78 

XIII 

Ispahan  Rug 

84 

XIV 

Kulah   Rug 

■     90 

XV 

Melhaz  Prayer-rug  . 

100 

XVI 

Ladik  Prayer-rug     . 

.    104 

XVII 

Kulah  Rug 

1 10 

XVIII 

Sixteenth  Century  Ghiorde 

z  Rug 

114 

XIX 

Ghiordez  Rug 

.    128 

XX 

Ghiordez  Rug 

•    i32 

XXI 

Ghiordez  Rug 

•    150 

XXII 

Sarak  Rug 

•    152 

XXIII 

Shiraz  Rug 

■    174 

XXIV 

Daghestan  Rug 

.    180 

XXV 

Soumac  (Shemaka)  Rug 

.    184 

XXVI 

Section  of  Soumac  Rug 

188 

XXVII 

Cabistan  Rug 

.    192 

XXVIII 

Shiraz  Rug 

.    196 

XXIX 

Herati  Rug 

.   200 

XXX 

Shiraz  Rug 

.   204 

XXXI 

Shiraz  Rug 

212 

XXXII 

Shiraz  Rug 

.  218 

XXXIII 

SennehRug 

.   222 

XXXIV 

Persian  Silk  Rug  . 

.  224 

XXXV 

Samarkand  Rug     . 

2^2 

XXXVI 

Persian  Silk  Mosque  Ruj 

236 

XXXVII 

Persian  Silk  Rug    . 

244 

XXXVIII 

Portion  of  Soumac  Rug 

272 

XXXIX 

Kirman  Rug 

276 

XL 

Turkish  Rug 

280 

XLI 

Herez  Rug 

284 

XLII 

Hamadan  Rug 

288 

XLIII 

Gorevan  Rug 

292 

XL1V 

Persian  Silk  Panel 

294 

LIST    OF     ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 

Miscellaneous  Illustrations. 

l'ACE 

Tribal  border  decoration  on  tent  .  .  ...       2 

Enamelled  face  of  tomb.  (Kelekian  collection)  .  .  .3 

Designs  copied  in  rugs  from  decoration  on  the  inside  of  canvas 
tents  ......     Facing  4 

Border  taken  from  antique  rug  .  .  .  .  .5 

Rock-cut  illustration  of  ancient "  galley"  .  .  .5 

Design,  found  in  textiles,  taken  from  the  "  Kaaba"  at  Mecca .       7 
Jewish  embroidery  on  linen       .  .  .  Facing   10 

Jewish  ceremonial  linens  .  .  .  Facing  12 

Various  forms  of  the  prayer-niche  in  rugs         .  .  .17 

The  mythical  journey  of  Solomon  to    Paradise   transported 

thither  on  the  green  carpet  described  on  page  17  Facing     .     18 
A  Chart  .  .  .  .  .  .  .26 

Greek  embroidery  .  .  .  .  .  -3° 

Materials  .  .  .  .  .,  .  .31 

Greek  Church  embroidery  .  .  .  Facing  32 

Change  in  design  caused  by  limitations  in  materials     .  .     36 

Armenian  patchwork  illustrating  the  story  of  St.  George  and 

the  Dragon,  and  other  Christian  subjects      .  Facing  36 

Colours  and  their  application    .  .  '.  .  -45 

Looms,  etc.         .  .  .  .  .  .  -5° 

Paraphernalia     .  .  .  .  .  .  -55 

Five  divisions     .  .  .  .  .  .  -59 

Outline  map  showing  five  divisions  of  rug-producing  country       61 
Outline  map  filled  in  from  memory       .  .  .  .63 

Star  showing  six  religions  .  .  .  .  .67 

Japanese  Art  Objects  :  Shinto  ;  Buddhist  .  Facing  68 

Image  of  Buddha  and  Buddhist  Art  Objects     .  Facing  70 

Jewish  marriage-lantern  .  .  .  .  .72 

Jewish  ornament  .  .  .  .  .  .72 

Ancient  forms  of  fire-altars  copied  in  design     .  .  -74 

Japanese  art  objects  (Shinto)    .  .  .  Facing  74 

Fire-twigs  used  in  ancient  worship        .  .  .  -75 

Ancient  fire-altar  .  .  .  .  .  .76 

Stand    for  holding  fire-twigs,    which,   in   modified  forms,   is 
shown  in  design         .  .  .  .  .  .76 


xu 


LIST    OF     ILLUSTRATIONS 


Upper  section  in  rug  chart        .  .  .  .  .84 

Prayer-niche  in  rug  charts  .  .  .  .  .89 

Jewish   embroidered  linen   showing  designs  copied    in  rugs 

Facing      94 
The  Seal  of  Solomon.     The  Signet  of  David    .  .  .101 

Outline  Map  of  Western  Asia  Minor     ....    109 
The  "  Kaaba  ",  Mecca  .  .  .  .  Facing  120 

Pilgrims  at  Prayer  in  the  Great  Mosque-Precinct  Facing   124 

The  Ancient  World  in  the  region  of  the  Great  Rivers  .  .    130 

Ancient  Assyrian  stepped  mountain  altars  and  crenelations  .  132 
Conventionalized  form  of  tree  .  .  .  .  135 

Various  conventionalized   forms  of  the  sacred   tree  copied   in 

Asia  Minor  and  Caucasian  rugs         .  .  .  .136 

Assyrian    sculptures    showing   various    tree-forms    found    in 

textiles  .....  Facing  136 

The  tree  in  Hindu  mythology  as  sometimes  copied  in  fabrics .   138 
Thibetan  "  tree-of-ten-thousand-images." — Leaf  of  "  tree-of- 
ten-thousand-images."- — Trees      and      fruits     copied    in 
textiles. — Tree-forms  copied  in  Persian  rugs  Facing  140 

Indian  arrangement  of  tree  in  design  ....  142 
Tree  form  in  Indian  ornament,  Buddha  Mosque,  Ahmedabad  143 
Various  forms  of  the  tree  in   designs  taken  from  embroidered 

textiles  and  rugs         ....  Facing  144 

Various  leaf-forms  found  in  rugs  ....    145 

River-loop  designs  in  East  Indian  textiles         .  .  .    146 

Sacred  river  in  Vale  of  Cashmere         .  .  Facing  146 

Crown-jewel  worn  by  Shah  Abbass  the  Great  .  .   147 

Various  forms  of  crown-jewels  that  have  been  copied  in  design  147 
Imprint  of  side  of  closed  hand  suggestive  of  palm-leaf  design  149 
Chinese  designs  showing  conventionalized  mountains  .  .    151 

Early  forms  of  altars  copied  in  rugs      .  .  .  ,    153 

Sceptres  decorated  with  sacred  mountains  and  constellations  155 
Cloud- forms  symbolizing  deity .  .  .  .  .156 

One  side  of  porcelain  jar  ornamented  with  the  Eight  Immortals 

of  China  .....  Facing  156 

The  "  Joo-e  "  sceptre  and  natural  fungus  from  which  the  form 
developed  .  .  .  .  .  .  .   157 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 


TAGE 


The  "  Joo-e  "  sceptre  as  used  to  exorcise  demons         .  .158 

Caucasian  rugs  and  border  designs        .  .  Facing  160 

Antique    Cabistan    border    design   showing   evolution    from 

archaic  pattern  ....  Facing  162 

A  page  of  Caucasian  border  designs      .  .  Facing  164 

Amulet  ornamented  with  six-pointed  star. — Designs  formed  of 

squares. — Star-form  based  on  right-angled  triangle. — Star 

based  on  equilateral  triangle  .  .  Facing  166 

Norse  designs  showing  forms  of  the  Sun-boat  and  arrangement 

of  them  in  borders         ....  Facing  170 

Pa-Kwa  showing  the   eight  diagrams  of  Fuh-hi  (Tae-kieh,  or 

Yang  and  Yin,  in  centre)         .  .  .  Facing  208 

Fuh-hi,  the  discoverer  of  the  "  eight  diagrams  "  .  .  209 

The  "  Tae-kieh  "  or  "  Yang  and  Yin  "  ...  209 

The  Corean  flag.  .  .  .  .  .  .211 

The  Tomoye,  extensively  used  in  Mongolian  ornament  .211 

Ornamental  use  of  symbolic  form  .  .  .  212 

Chinese  historic  ornament  .  .  .  .  .213 

Mongolian   ornament  found  in  Chinese  and  Turcoman  rugs 

Facing  214 
Cycle  of  Cathay  .  .  .  .  .  .  .223 

Conventionalized  butterfly  forms  found  in  rug  borders  .  226 

Thibetan  Buddhist  praying-wheels  ;  Dorje  and  bells  copied  in 

rug  designs       .....  Facing  228 

Jain  Buddhist  symbol  found  in  textiles  ....  232 
Lotus  pond  in  Japan         ....  Facing  242 

Buddhist  goddess  holding  lotus-flower  and  other  emblems  .  243 
Lotus  arising  from  the  cauldron  of  the  elements  .  .  244 

Assyrian  treatment  of  lotus  .....  245 
Egyptian  treatment  of  lotus  .....  245 
Lotus  :  palmate  and  rosette  forms  of  Western  Asia     .  .  246 

Image  of  Buddha  seated  on  Lotus. — Medallion  showing  eight 
attitudes   of    Buddha.— Thibetan    prayer   copied  in   rug 
designs  .....  Facing  248 

A  Japanese  Buddhist  conception  of  the  appearance  of  souls 
upon  the  sea  of  paradise,  each  having  come  through  the 
stem  of  a  sacred  lotus-flower  .  .  Facing  250 


xiv  LIST    OF     ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Buddhist  Goddess  of  Mercy  holding  propagation  vase              .  251 
A  Chinese  picture  of  the  Goddess  of  Mercy  delivering  a  soul 

from  purgatory  by  the  sacred  lotus-flower  .  .252 

Deliverance  of  a  soul   from  purgatory  by  use  of  the  sacred 

lotus  held  by  one  of  the  Eight  Immortals  of  China     Facing  252 

Hindu  idea  of  the  universe  based  on  form  of  lotus         .             .  253 

The  five-claw  dragon  of  China  .....  254 

Designs  showing  dragons  in  clouds  with  pearls,  bats,  knots  of 
destiny,  waves,  clouds,  sacred  mountain,  tide-jewels,  etc. 

Facing  254 

Archaic  dragon  form  on  standard           .             .             .             .  255 

Three-claw  dragon  of  Japan      .  .  .  .  .256 

Portions  of  Chinese  Mandarin  robes  showing  the  sacred  moun- 
tain rising  from  the  waves  ;  dragon  guarding  jewels  ;  and 

wave  and  cloud  designs           .             .             .            Facing  256 

Dragon  scrolls  from  border  designs,  showing  suggestion  of  legs  257 

Archaic  border  designs   ......  257 

Butterfly-scroll  border-motif       .....  257 

"  Chin  "  or  pearl  for  which  dragon  seeks           .             .             .  258 
Emperor  of   China.     Dragon  and  Fung-Kwang,  as  seen    in 
old  Chinese  designs,  appear  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  frame 

Facing  258 

Japanese  Imperial  crest  ......  260 

Collection  of  rosaries :    Roman  Catholic,  Buddhist  and  Mo- 
hammedan.— Roman   Catholic  rosaries         .             Facing  262 
Buddhist  and   Mohammedan  rosaries    .             .             Facing  268 
Thibetan  prayer  .......  283 

Inscriptions,  name  and  date  woven  in  rug         .             .             .  285 

Arabic  numerals  found  in  rugs    .....  285 

Signet  of  Solomon,  mythical  origin  of  numbers             .             .  286 

Tughra  of  Abd-ul-aziz     ......  293 

Knot  designs  in  Scandinavian  weaving. — Buddhist  knot  of  des- 
tiny.— "  Ankh,"    the     Egyptian    Key-of-life.—  Girdle    of 
Isis. — Buddhist  temple  ornaments. — Celtic  knot  of  destiny 

Facing  296 

Map  of  Asia         .....              Facing  298 

Outline  map  to  be  filled  in  by  the  reader             .             .             .  299 


LISRARY 

■TAT*  TWftCHER*  •OLLI^. 
•ANTA  BARBARA,  CAi_IFORH|A 


-; 


FOREWORD 

THERE  will  ever  be  a  controversy  between  the 
botanists  and  those  mere  lovers  of  flowers  who  refuse 
to  pull  to  pieces  the  beautiful  blossoms  of  the  fields 
and  wooded  dells  in  order  to  know  how  they  are  made 
and  to  what  families  they  belong.  And  so,  when  with 
earnest  desire  to  establish  the  truth  the  student  of 
Oriental  rugs  pursues  his  analytical  investigations,  he 
is  met  with  the  criticism  of  others  who  say,  "  We 
admit  but  one  standard — that  of  beauty,  for  unless  a 
thing  is  beautiful  it  has  no  right  to  exist ;  if  it  is 
beautiful  it  need  give  no  reason  for  its  existence." 
And  with  this  rebuke  the  student  creeps  back  to  his 
den,  where  he*  tenderly  bends  over  textiles  in  which  he 
has  counted  every  knot,  examined  each  varying  shade 
of  colour,  lovingly  stroked  the  wonderful  sheen,  and 
inquired  of  each  ornament  its  symbolic  import,  mar- 
velling, with  a  devotion  born  of  knowledge,  at  the 
consummate  beauty  of  that  which,  in  spite  of  all  his 
efforts  to  understand  it,  is  far  past  human  comprehen- 
sion. With  reverence  he  bows  before  the  altar  of 
beauty  as  only  he  can  who  adequately  comprehends 
the  fact  that  all  beauty  humanly  created  is  the  legacy 
of  technical  precision  somewhere  back  in  the  years, 
and  recognition  of  the  sincere  service  of  artist  or 
artisan  adds  to,  rather  than  detracts  from  his  sense  of 
appreciation. 


xvi  FOREWORD 

The  lights  may  chase  each  other  over  the  surface  of 
an  old  porcelain  jar,  as  it  stands  silently  testifying  to 
the  senses  that  a  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever. 
As  far  as  the  eye  is  trained  it  admires  the  softened 
and  reserved  quality  and  tone  of  the  glaze,  into  the 
depths  of  which  it  seems  impossible  to  penetrate. 
Connoisseur  after  connoisseur,  gazing  upon  the  treas- 
ure, has  congratulated  its  owner  upon  his  possession. 

One  day  a  reverent  pilgrim  at  the  shrine  of  knowl- 
edge is  shown  this  marvel  of  marvels.  Gazing  upon 
it,  he  realizes  not  only  its  beauty  but  the  fact  that  in 
it  he  may  be  about  to  see  the  manifestation  of  that  for 
which  he  has  long  been  seeking.  He  knows  that  many 
centuries  ago,  when  one  potter  was  vying  with  another 
for  supremacy  in  the  art,  two  brothers  lived  who  vowed 
that  they  would  excel  at  the  cost  of  time  and  strength, 
of  effort  and  money.  And  so  they  worked  on  and  on 
and  on.  Meanwhile  others  were  endeavouring  to  steal 
from  ripening  fruit  its  bloom,  and  from  animal  blood 
its  virility,  and  shade  and  tint  of  surpassing  loveliness 
crowned  their  efforts  with  success.  The  rust  of  iron 
and  other  metals  had  heretofore  been  used  in  correct 
proportions  in  the  glazes  with  which  rare  old  porcelains 
were  decorated  ;  but  the  brother  potters  determined  to 
use  in  their  compounds  the  most  costly  product  ob- 
tainable,— pure  gold, — and  a  few  matchless  pieces  of 
inestimable  value  remain  to  mark  the  period  of  their 
success. 

Our  pilgrim,  with  an  eye  trained  by  ceaseless  ana- 
lytical study  of  objects  which  he  knows  and  loves 
and  understands,  is  able  to  bring  not  only  his  apprecia- 
tion of  beauty,  but  an  intelligent  response  to  the  dumb 


FOREWORD  xvii 

object  which  he  at  once  recognizes  as  one  of  the  few 
original  masterpieces.  And  his  human  hands  stretch 
back  into  the  past  and  clasp  with  approval  those  other 
hands  that  have  striven  to  create  this  beauty. 

The  standard  of  such  an  art-lover  is,  after  all,  the 
highest,  for,  though  he  sees  the  fleck  in  the  gem,  he 
notes  as  well  the  surpassing  loveliness  of  the  flawless 
sapphire.  Though  he  detects  any  attempt  at  deception 
in  the  warp  and  woof  of  textiles,  he  recognizes  the 
fur-like  quality  of  materials  properly  prepared  and 
woven.  Though  he  condemns  that  which  he  knows 
to  be  unreliable  in  colour,  he  steadies  his  gaze  upon 
the  true  and  absolute  tones  that  centuries  have  but 
made  more  perfect. 

He  is  the  guardian  of  the  past  and  the  prophet  of 
the  future  who  realizes  that ;  — 

"  Back    of   the    canvas  that    throbs    the    painter   is    hinted    and 
hidden. 
Into  the  statue  that  breathes  the  soul  of  the  sculptor  is  bidden, 
Crowning  the  glory  revealed  is  the  glory  that  crowns  the  reveal- 
ing." 


"  Salut  an  monde  ! 

•  *••••• 

I  see  the  picturesque  crowds  at  the  fairs  of  Khiva  and  those  of 

Herat, 
I  see  Teheran,  I  see    Muscat   and  Medina,  and  the   intervening 

Lands. 
I  see  the  caravans  toiling  onward. 

•  •  •  •  •  •  • 

I  see  ranks,  colours,  barbarisms,  civilizations, 
I  go  among  them,  I  mix  indiscriminately, 
And  I  salute  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  ! 

You  mountaineer  living  lawlessly  on  the  Taurus  or  Caucasus ! 
You  Bokh  horse-herd  watching  your  mares  and  stallions  feeding  ! 
You  beautiful-bodied  Persian  at  full  speed  in  the  saddle,  shooting 

arrows  to  the  mark  ! 
You  Chinaman  and  Chinawoman  of  China,  you  Tartar  of  Tartary ! 
You  women  of  the  earth,  subordinated  at  your  tasks! 

You    thoughtful    Armenian   pondering   by   some    stream    of   the 

Euphrates  ! 
You  foot-worn  pilgrim   welcoming  the    far-away   sparkle  of   the 

Minarets  of  Mecca ! 

And  you  each  and  everywhere  whom  I  specify  not,  but  include 

just  the  same  ! 
Health  to  you  !     Good  will  to  you  all  ! 
Toward  you  all,  I  raise  high  the  perpendicular  hand, 
I  make  the  Signal !  " 

— Walt  Whitman. 


' 


■'lv&j|ai 


ANTIQUE    ASIA    MJXOR    PRAYER-BUG 

OHOWIXG  lioniad  handling  of  Ghiordez. 
^  Ktdah,  and  Btrqama  feature*  in  both  de- 
sign and  ireave. 


- 


•.viWumA    \  QTAVWQJH.O 

-»b  Mod  *\\  %a*wVm\  »«vno;t&?L  h«»  .jlnUsX     ^ 


. 


The  Oriental  Rug  Book 


CHAPTER  I 

TENTS  —  TEMPLES  —  TOMBS 

"  'Tis  but  a  tent,  where  takes  his  one  day's  rest, 
A  Sultan,  to  the  realm  of  death  addressed." 

Omar  Khayyam 


AMONG  tent-dwelling  people  the  Oriental  rug  had 
its  birth.  Tent-dwellers  from  earliest  times  have 
made  use  of  hangings  and  floor-coverings  of  great 
interest  and  beauty.  Tents  themselves  were  far  more 
gorgeous  than  we  are  apt  to  suppose,  until  study 
brings  to  Light  many  commonly  unknown  facts  con- 
cerning them,  the  nations  and  tribes  of  the  Orient 
availing  themselves  of  all  the  luxuries  that  time  and 
skill  afforded  in  making  their  tents  sumptuous./' 

In  the  long  ago,  Alexander  the  Great  is  said  to 
have  been  so  charmed  with  tent  life  that  he  imported 
the  idea  to  Greece.  His  tent  was  supported  by  fifty 
golden  pillars,  carrying  a  roof  of  woven  gold,  em- 
broidered in  shimmering  colours,  scarlet  and  white 
hangings  separating  the  apartments.  This  tent  was 
even  exceeded  in  beauty  by  one  belonging  to  an 
Egyptian  king,  which  was  covered  with  golden  eagles, 


2  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

the  pillars  which  supported  the  roof  representing 
palm-trees  of  gold,  about  which  twined  vines  of 
gold  leaves,  with  fruitage  of  amethysts.  The  Bed- 
ouins frequently  sheltered  many  thousand  people  in 
their  native  tents,  and,  great  as  was  the  expense 
necessary  to  protect  so  many,  the  sides  of  the  tents 
were  decorated  with  beautiful  embroideries;  and 
precious  stones  and  gold  were  used  in  the  greatest 
profusion. 


TRIBAL  BORDER   DECORATION   ON  TENT. 

Even  after  tents  are  abandoned  by  tent-dwelling 
people,  and  rude  structures  take  their  place,  wall- 
hangings  and  weavings  of  all  sorts  are  made  to 
clothe  architecture,  and  upon  them  we  find  that  the 
decorations  are  the  same  as  those  worked  formerly 
upon  the  canvas  of  the  tent  homes  themselves.  Re- 
turned travellers,  at  the  present  day,  give  most  enthu- 
siastic descriptions  of  the  beauty  and  luxury  of  the 


i 


BUG-PLATE  I 


KIZ-KHILIM  RUG 


BUG-PLATE  I 


a 


in 


KIZ-KHILIM  RUG 

Size:  5.4  X  4.4 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

c7    HIS  is  a  personage  prayer-rug.  In  twenty- 
J-      four  years  I  have  not  seen  so  fine  a  speci- 
en. "  H.    Ephraim   Benguiat. 


Author's  Description 


The  sacred  tree  in  design  finds  a  variety  of 
rendering  in  this  rare  old  rug,  lohich  as  a  per- 
sonal possession  of  an  Oriental  girl  takes 
high  rank  as  a  work  of  sentiment,  and  as  such 
it  should  be  regarded. 

The  ground  of  the  central  panel  is  pink,  upon 
which  the  designs  are  worked  in  blue,  red,  and 
yellow,  and  in  silver  bullion.  Above  the  prayer- 
niche  the  background  is  yellow,  shoiving  upon  it 
patterns  of  silver  and  red.  The  first  border 
which  surrounds  the  field  is  of  blue,  in  which 
the  silver  used  in  the  patterns  has  become  tar- 
nished, as  all  Oriental  silver  does,  to  shades 
of  golden  bronze.  Five  materials  are  found  in 
analyzing  this  fabric  :  wool,  cotton,  silk,  gold, 
and  silver.  The  metals  accentuate  and  add 
brilliancy  and  lustre  to  the  colour  scheme, 
though  they  blend  with  the  soft  shades  of  the 
zvool  most  harmoniously. 


/ 


tvw: 


-j  ;- 


-* iT      ~^v-?     -vi.     >i*i      -*"  -  _'-       _i^«       ^*-        •_        .x/i      ^M      *ff% 


M jsol*  .  "cCt*  **¥*$*f&*#; 


Mm? 


♦ 


*  /  £ 


If: 


j 


Txl/V 


A 


RUG-PLATE  I 


T E N TS  — T E M PL E S  — T O M B S  3 

tents  that  even  now  are  used  by  the  nomads,  or  wan- 
dering tribes,  all  over  Asia,  and  much  that  will  mate- 


ENAMELLED    FACE   OF   TOMB    (KELEKIAN    COLLECTION). 

rially  assist  the  student  is  being  gathered  from  people 
who  have  not  yet  sacrificed  tribal  traditions. 


4  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

The  ornamentation  on  the  tents  of  primitive  peo- 
ple, and  upon  their  tabernacles  and  tombs,  was  in 
early  times  either  painted  and  embroidered  on  canvas, 
or  engraved  on  stone  and  wood.  Such  methods  of 
decoration  antedated  weaving  in  pattern.  When  the 
effort  was  first  made  to  copy  in  warp  and  woof  the 
patterns  which  had  been  formerly  embroidered  upon 
a  smooth,  woven  surface,  the  weavers  found  it  impossi- 
ble to  work  in  curves  because  of  the  limitations  of 
the  art.  This  forced  the  geometric  in  design,  and  we 
claim  for  the  weaver's  art  the  origin  of  that  style  of 
ornament.  The  very  beautiful  and  highly  developed 
geometric  designs  that  soon  evolved  from  the  weav- 
er's dexterity  and  skill  were  in  turn  copied  in  paint- 
ing and  in  mosaic  work  in  stone,  so  that  later  weavers 
found  inspiration  and  guidance  by  studying  the  rock- 
cut  tombs  and  sculptures  of  the  Orient.  These  stone 
carvings  are  invaluable  to  us  in  the  study  of  the  art 
of  the  ancients,  and  each  year  places  us  under  more 
of  a  debt  to  antiquarians  and  eminent  scholars  whose 
scientific  skill  and  indefatigable  perseverance  and 
patience  discover  and  interpret  the  relics  of  the  past. 

By  way  of  example,  let  us  trace  one  simple  pattern 
found  as  a  border  design  in  the  very  early  weavings  of 
people  near  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  the 
Black,  and  the  Caspian  seas.  The  angular  hook  pat- 
tern which  is  apparent  in  all  Western  Asian  designs, 
is  traced  by  some  to  a  wave  or  water  motif  and  by 
others  to  a  more  involved  ancestry;  the  zig-zag  in  dif- 
ferent places  has  different  meanings,  but  it  is  generally 
claimed  as  a  water  motif;  while  the  space  which  sepa- 
rates the  lower  from  the  upper  ornament,  though  it 


DESIGNS    COPIED    IN    RUGS    FROM    DECORATION    ON    THE    INSIDE 

OF    CANVAS    TENTS 


TENTS-TEMPLES-TOMBS 


BORDER  TAKEN  FROM  ANTIQUE  RUG. 

appears  with  slight  variations  in  numberless  old  pat- 
terns, is  usually  marked  off  by  simple  diagonal  lines 
at  regular  intervals.  The  oft  recurrence  of  these  three 
motifs  of  ornament  in  certain  tribal  patterns  seem- 
ing to  point  to  some  remote  origin,  a  search  among 
museum  treasures  brought  to  light  various  rock 
sculptures  with  __ 
designs  in  relief 
of  old  galleys  and 
craft  of  various  "O 
sorts,  and  tracings  ^  Jgg 
from  these  give 
mute  evidence  of 
the  right  of  the 
student  to  draw 
h  i  s  own  deduc- 
tions. 

A  consideration 
of  the  develop- 
ment i  n  decora- 
tion, from  that 
which     could     be 

freely      applied  rock-cut  illustration  of 

with    a   brush    or  ancient  "  galley." 


6  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

easily  cut  in  a  soft  substance  to  that  which  is  nec- 
essarily restricted  in  expression  because  of  the  ina- 
daptability of  the  materials  used,  reveals  the  fact  that 
all  primitive  peoples  have  found  the  same  difficulties, 
and  that  consequently  a  similarity  in  early  art  is  to  be 
expected.  In  primitive  geometric  ornament  straight 
lines  are  used,  and  patterns  are  made  to  assume 
angular  forms  giving  great  vitality.  As  obstacles  are 
overcome,  however,  straight  lines  give  place  to  curves, 
the  concessions  of  the  weaver  being  everywhere  ap- 
parent, and  we  note  a  decline  in  the  vigour  of  the 
designs,  which  may  quite  easily  mark  the  age  and 
periods  of  development  in  the  art  of  any  special 
locality. 

In  certain  parts  of  the  Orient  geometric  design  has 
developed  features  that  are  different  from  those  most 
often  found  in  other  places.  In  one  region  the  star, 
in  another  the  equilateral  triangle,  and  in  still  another 
the  octagon,  furnish  motifs  that  receive  novel  and 
interesting  treatment  in  the  various  localities  where 
they  have  been  most  fully  developed.  In  the  early 
history  of  the  weaver's  art,  these  main  features  were 
distinct,  and  serve  to  guide  our  judgment  accurately 
in  making  decisions.  There  was  fidelity  in  pattern  to 
the  symbol  from  which  it  evolved,  and  every  effort 
was  made  to  hand  down  from  one  generation  to  an- 
other that  which  had  been  long  honoured  and 
revered. 

The  poetry  of  rug-making  has  been  turned  into 
prose  by  the  modern  European  manufacturer,  who 
orders  in  the  East,  according  to  his  own  fancy  or 
knowledge  about    the  market,   that  which  he    thinks 


TE  N  TS  —  T  E  M  PL  E  S-T  OM  BS  7 

will  sell  best.  There  was  a  time  when  to  finish  a  rug 
in  the  home  of  a  native  weaver  was  to  accomplish 
something  worthy  of  recognition.  The  father  of  the 
fair  weaver  would  go  about  and  say  :  "  Oh,  come  !  My 
girl  !  She  has  made  a  rug  !  Come,  come  and  see  the 
rug  my  daughter  she  has  made !  "  And  then  the 
neighbours  would  go  to   see  the   rug,  and  would  con- 


DESIGN,  FOUND  IN  TEXTILES,  TAKEN  FROM  THE  "KAABA  "  AT  MECCA. 


gratulate  the  father  of  a  girl  who  could  weave  so  fine 
a  rug,  one  that  she  might  use  as  a  dowry-rug.  No 
money  value  could  be  placed  on  such  a  production  as 
that.  By  the  rugs  thus  woven  young  girls  were  some- 
times judged    by   their    suitors,    and    a    rug    showing 


8  THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

patience,  skill,  and  fidelity  to  tribal  distinction  was 
apt  to  mean  that  the  weaver  would  make  a  good  wife. 

The  study  of  Oriental  rugs  will  reveal  much  that 
can  be  discovered  in  no  other  way.  The  needs  of 
human  beings  are  alike  the  world  over,  and  the 
tent,  the  temple,  and  the  tomb  draw  upon  the  inven- 
tive genius  of  all  peoples  alike, —  a  place  in  which  to 
live,  which  shall  be  as  beautiful  as  our  knowledge 
and  means  will  admit  ;  a  place  in  which  to  worship, 
which  shall  be  adorned  with  the  choicest  manifesta- 
tions of  thought  and  art  ;  and  a  quiet  spot  some- 
where to  bear  evidence  that  we  are  not  forgotten. 

In  the  Orient  the  rug  has  always  served  all  these 
purposes, —  it  adorns  the  home,  makes  beautiful  the 
temple,  and  is  thrown  upon  the  tomb  in  loving  mem- 
ory. It  is  told  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  that  he  so 
endeared  himself  to  the  natives  of  Samoa,  that  after 
his  death  they  crept  silently  to  the  spot  where  he  was 
resting,  and  drew  over  him  one  of  their  own  native 
rugs,  as  the  most  absolute  token  of  their  regard. 


BUG-PLATE  II 


KHILIM  RUG 


MUG-PLATE  II 


KHILIM  RUG 

Size:  5.0  X  3.6 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

OlXTEENTH-century  Khilim  rug  made  by  the 
**     descendants  of  the  Byzantines.  " 

H.  E.  Benguiat. 

Author's  Description 

The  tree  of  life  is  here  shoivn  in  archaic 
design.  Birds  facing  each  other  stand  upon 
the  branches  from  which  the  leafage  or  fruit 
hangs.  This  motif,  though  very  crude,  is  found 
repeated  in  the  border  stripe  surrounding  the 
field. 


RUG-PLATE  11 


CHAPTER    II 

SHAPES   AND    USES     OF   ORIENTAL   RUGS 

As  our  study  of  Oriental  rugs  is  to  be  entirely 
from  an  Occidental  standpoint,  we  shall  first  group 
them  together  without  regard  to  their  native  uses  and 
purposes.  We  have  found  that  certain  shapes  and 
sizes  are  generally  adhered  to  by  Oriental  weavers, 
and  we  have  accommodated  in  our  modern  homes,  as 
best  we  could,  that  which  most  readily  would  suit  our 
special  needs.  Oblong  rugs  have  served  us  fairly  well 
as  hearth-rugs  and  as  coverings  for  divans,  and  to 
throw  about  small  rooms  over  a  "  filling "  of  plain 
colour,  or  upon  bare  floors.  For  room  centres  we 
have  utilised  the  Afghan,  Khiva,  and  Bokhara  rugs, 
which  came  to  us  in  larger  sizes  at  first  than  other 
makes  were  apt  to,  and  though  always  expensive 
their  value  has  been  esteemed  and  considered  com- 
mensurate. Long  and  narrow  rugs  we  found  suitable 
for  halls  and  stairs,  because  until  of  late  years  our 
halls  and  stairways  have  been  long  and  narrow,  and 
have  not  been  developed  artistically.  Smooth-faced 
rugs,  without  pile  (Khilim)  have  long  been  used  as 
portieres  and  table-covers,  and  for  cushions  we  have 
utilised  small  saddle-bags  and  Anatolian  mats. 

Following  closely  upon  our  adaptation  of  things 
Oriental,  there  came   to   us   carpets  manufactured  on 


io  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

purpose  for  European  and  American  homes,  and  it 
was  then  that  those  who  could  afford  to  do  so  ordered 
for  their  large  rooms  and  salons  "Turkish,"  or  "Tur- 
key carpets  "  of  large  and  heavy  make.  At  the  same 
time  students  were  beginning  to  investigate  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  the  Orie'nt,  and  to  ascertain  the 
exact  purpose  for  which  textile  fabrics  were  designed 
and  made,  so  that  at  the  present  time  we  are  apt  to 
hear  names  more  or  less  correctly  applied,  for  in  the 
Orient  each  need  of  life  has  been  supplied  with  its 
appropriate  rug,  and  isolated  facts  concerning  Eastern 
habits  reveal  what  many  of  these  needs  are. 

However  profane  the  use  made  of  the  Oriental  rug, 
it  was  originally  a  thing  of  sentiment  and  should  be 
studied  as  such.  With  unsandalled  feet  the  ancients 
stepped  upon  it,  and  the  poetry  and  religion  of  de- 
vout souls  have  mingled  with  the  practical  detail  of 
daily  life  to  make  smooth  its  surface  of  silk  and  wool. 

THE   DOWRY-RUG, 

THE   WEDDING-RUG, 

THE    HOST-RUG, 

THE   RUG   OF   HOSPITALITY 

AND   THE   HEARTH-RUG, — 

each  one  of  these  was  woven  according  to  time- 
honoured  rules,  and  in  shapes  and  sizes  following 
styles. 

HUNTING-RUGS, 

SADDLE-BAGS, 

DESERT-  AND   TENT-RUGS, 
RUGS   FOR   HANGINGS 

AND   FOR   DIVANS, — 


[EWISH    KMllki  ill»l,K\    (>N    I.1XKN 


USES    OF    ORIENTAL    RUGS  ii 

of  these  many  were  adorned  with  significant  designs 
which  indicate  their  uses. 

THRONE-RUGS, 

MOSQUE-RUGS, 

PALLS   and    PRAYER-RUGS, — 

a  bale  containing  a  single  specimen  of  each  of  these 
varieties  would  indeed  be  of  inestimable  value,  and 
why  should  we  not  be  more  careful  in  our  selection  of 
these  art  objects,  establishing  in  our  minds  some 
definite  idea  in  making  our  collections  ? 

The  dowry-rug  is  not  always  woven,  but  is  made 
of  material  heavily  embroidered  or  quilted  in  artistic 
design.  It  is  the  last  possession  that  an  Oriental 
woman  will  sell,  and  for  this  reason  dowry-rugs  are  not 
commonly  shown  as  such  in-this  country.  Small  tap- 
estry rugs,  such  as  are  known  as  Kiz-Khilim  (Ghilcevi), 
or  "girl-rugs"  are  worked  by  girls,  and  are  sometimes 
very  beautiful.  Held  to  the  light,  a  tracing  in  pat- 
tern of  openwork  is  sometimes  evident,  and  in  very 
early  weaving  this  pattern  was  intentional,  and  often 
very  intricate,  not  always  bearing  relation  to  the  pat- 
tern in  coloured  wools  worked  with  wool  upon  the 
warp.  This,  a  double  task,  was  set  the  weaver,  and 
great  skill  marked  many  of  these  exquisite  creations. 
Sometimes  beads,  bits  of  cotton  cloth,  or  small  tufts 
of  wool,  were  attached  to  the  warp  threads  of  these 
Kiz-Kkilims  as  talismans  or  to  keep  off  the  evil  eye. 
As  the  dread  of  this  malevolent  influence  exists 
universally  throughout  the  Orient,  it  soon  becomes 
apparent  to  the  student  that  many  things  that  have 
worked  their  way  into  ornament  may  be  traced  to  the 


12  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

effort  of  the  individual  to  appease  some  antagonistic 
power  and  prevent  evil  consequences.  The  charms 
that  have  proved  efficacious  vary,  and  in  the  most  ex- 
treme cases  the  evil  force  is  portrayed  in  animal  form, 
and  the  charm  that  allures  the  animal  is  adopted  as 
a  talisman.  Mongolian  adherence  to  the  effort  to  keep 
off  the  evil  eye  has  very  decidedly  marked  the  orna- 
ment of  eastern  Asia,  and  we  find,  even  in  Persian 
weavings,  patterns  that  show  their  origin  in  talismans, 
so  that  it  has  seemed  wise  to  make  a  special  class  for 
such  ornament. 

Wedding-rugs  are  never  seen  in  large  sizes,  but  all 
the  originality  and  skill  of  the  weaver  was  dedicated 
to  the  task  of  making  such  a  possession  beautiful. 
In  them  tribal  designs  of  significance  and  purity  were 
preserved,  and  they  were*  used  to  cover  the  couch  and 
to  screen  the  apartments  in  the  home.    • 

The  new  tent  roof  stretched,  the  hearth-rug  finds 
its  place.  Hearth-rugs  may  be  distinguished  by  the 
shape  of  the  field,  which  is  pointed  at  both  ends. 
To  stand  upon  another's  hearth-rug  was  to  seek 
and  find  sanctuary.  As  rugs  of  hospitality  they  are 
indeed  well  named,  for  we  can  scarce  form  an  idea 
of  what  it  meant  to  those  whose  hands  were  against 
every  man,  to  find  a  shelter  from  storm  and  from 
attack.  The  vow  of  the  Moslem  was  not  lightly 
taken,  but  when  it  was,  it  was  protected  by  the  faith 
which  uttered  the  creed  : 

"We  are  believers  in  the  book  which  saith,  Fulfil  your  cove- 
nants, if  ye  covenant  ;  For  God  is  witness  !  break  no  word  with 
men  which  God  hath  heard  ;  and  surely  He  hears  all  !  " — Koran, 
chap,  xvi ;    Sir  Edwin  Arnold,  Pearls  of  the  Faith. 


JEWISH   CEREMONIAL  LINENS 


USES    OF    ORIENTAL    RUGS  13 

In  fact,  of  other  than  the  Mohammedans  among  the 
peoples  of  the  Orient  the  same  may  be  said  in  regard 
to  the  sanctity  of  hospitality.  The  host,  whether  in 
his  home  or  upon  his  travels,  was  always  well  equip- 
ped with  textiles  worked  in  designs  that  indicated 
their  uses.  Host-rugs  for  the  home,  showing,  either 
in  pattern  or  in  weave  divisions,  where  guests  should 
sit  and  where  the  master  of  the  house  or  tent  should 
remain  ;  saddle-bags  and  "  woven  trappings,"  hunting- 
rugs, —  and  coverings  of  all  sorts,  are  among  the 
choicest  weavings  to  be  found,  and  antique  specimens 
are  of  great  beauty. 

/Jrbr0nC=51RUCl8  Throne-rugs  and  mosque-rugs  are 

._         an6  __  naturally  the  most  costly  and   beau- 

/iDosque^lRuos    ..,  ,    c    ,,  .  , 

titul  01  all  eastern  weavings,  and 
they  demand  entirely  different  consideration  from  the 
rugs  that  are  made  and  used  by  nomad  tribes  and 
villagers.  They  have  ordinarily  been  made  under 
royal  patronage  and  careful  surveillance,  and  the 
weavers  have  been  protected  in  every  way.  It  has 
been  the  good  fortune  of  wealthy  Orientals  to  defy 
the  cold  and  unattractive  winter  time  by  having 
woven  for  them  rare  and  marvellous  carpets,  which  as 
nearly  as  possible  represent  both  the  flower-strewn 
fields  and  the  gardens  in  which  summer  days  and 
nights  were  spent.  Cool,  splashing,  and  gurgling 
water  flowing  in  and  about  the  beds  of  flowers  in  the 
summer  gardens  furnished  water  motifs  quite  unlike 
those  that  are  so  called  in  the  ornament  of  dwellers 
on  the  sea-coast,  where  waves  instead  of  fountains 
and  streams  inspired  brains  and  fingers.  The  coloured 
tiles  over  which  the  water  trickled  gave  an  iridescence 


i4  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

to  the  transmitted  hues,  and  lent  to  the  ornament 
derived  from  such  natural  conditions  a  charm  that  we 
feel  in  studying  the  reproduction  in  wool  of  these 
subtle  themes.  Skilled  workers,  engaged  at  the  pre- 
sent time  in  the  palaces  and  homes  of  dignitaries,  are 
copying  with  precision  the  rare  carpets  of  past  centur- 
ies, in  which  are  treasured  up  the  poetry  and  soul  of 
the  ages. 

The  gardens  of  the  Orient  have  marked  the  art  of  its 
weavers  in  two  entirely  distinct  ways.  The  style  most 
prized,  if  there  be  any  definite  choice,  is  that  which 
in  a  naturalistic  way  portrays  minute  flower  forms. 
In  palace  carpets  of  the  sixteenth  century  such 
decoration  reached  its  highest  state  of  perfection,  and 
rare  copies  of  famous  "  palace-rugs  "  are  from  time  to 
time  shown  as  museum  treasures.  These  are  finished 
with  narrow  borders,  which  serve  no  purpose  of 
decoration,  but  merely  bound  the  flower-strewn  field. 
The  other  style  of  carpet  inspired  by  the  garden 
is  that  in  which  the  divisions  of  the  rug,  with  its 
borders,  follow  the  general  plans  observed  in  Oriental 
pleasure-grounds.  In  some  cases  even  the  crenella- 
tions  that  finish  the  walls  which  surround  the  gardens 
furnish  motifs  of  ornament  for  the  outside  or  limiting 
border.  The  ridges  that  separate  the  flower-beds  in 
the  natural  gardens  are  sometimes  covered  with  vines, 
and  these  are  faithfully  copied  in  the  small  dividing 
borders  between  the  broad  ones,  which  are  also 
ornamented  with  flower  forms.  Terraces,  fountains, 
trees,  and  fruit  are  all  faithfully  reproduced,  and  are 
treated  by  some  weavers  conventionally,  and  by 
others  in  a  naturalistic  way. 


USES    OF    ORIENTAL    RUGS  15 

The  rose-gardens  of  Persia  have  especially  appealed 
to  the  luxury-loving  natives  of  the  land  loved  by  the 
poets,  for,  as  in  all  countries  where  desert  lands 
abound,  the  oases  are  highly  prized,  and  wherever 
irrigation  is  necessary  in  order  to  make  the  desert 
blossom,  verdure  depending  upon  human  effort,  man 
endeavours  to  make  for  himself  within  prescribed 
limits  a  perfect  baharistan,  or  paradise.  These 
earthly  pleasure-grounds  furnish  to  the  imagination 
models  for  abodes  in  bliss  which  await  those  loved  by 
the  gods,  who,  while  resting  here  on  earth,  sing  of 
joys  to  come  : 

"  Lo,  we  have  told  you  of  the  golden  garden 
Kept  for  the  faithful,  where  the  soil  is  still 
Wheat-flour  and  musk,  and  camphire  and  fruits  harden 
To  what  delicious  savour  each  man  will. 

"  Upon  the  Tooba  tree,  which  bends  its  clusters 
To  him  that  doth  desire,  bearing  all  meat ; 
And  of  the  sparkling  fountains  which  out-lustre 
Diamonds  and  emeralds  running  clear  and  sweet. 

"  Dwelling  in  marvellous  pavilions,  builded 

Of  hollow  pearls  wherethrough  a  great  light  shines, 
Cooled  by  soft  breezes,  and  by  glad  suns  gilded, 
On  the  green  pillows  where  the  blest  reclines. 

"A  rich  reward  it  shall  be,  a  full  payment 

For  life's  brief  trials  and  sad  virtue's  stress, 
When  friends  with  friends,  clad  all  in  festal  raiment, 
Share  in  deep  Heaven  the  angel's  happiness." 

Sir  Edwin  Arnold, — Pearls  of  the  Faith. 

In   old    Mongolian    devices  we    find,    in     the    outer 
border    of   garden-rugs,  mountain  and    cloud    designs 


16  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

indicating  an  extended  view  from  the  place  of 
retreat.  These  once  faithfully  portrayed  natural 
objects  have  very  few  of  them  been  preserved  with 
their  original  meaning  in  modern  ornament,  but  like 
scattered  petals  they  are  strewn  upon  the  solid- 
coloured  fields  of  modern  rugs  in  highly  convention- 
alised forms,  as  roses,  tulips,  pinks,  and  lilies. 

Like  throne-rugs  and  palace-rugs,  mosque-rugs  are 
among  the  most  magnificent  fruits  of  the  loom,  and  as 
votive  offerings  they  are  made  costly  beyond  descrip- 
tion. Floral  symbolism  may  be  traced  in  many  of  the 
designs  used  in  these  gift  rugs,  and  panel  decoration 
of  the  most  ornate  character  abounds  which  follows 
architectural  types  and  is  enriched  by  significant 
motifs  taken  from  existing  ornament. 

(&Y&ve~  ^n  ru£s  *-nat  are  used  as  palls  and  grave-car- 
pets we  find  the  tree  in  ornament,  as  well 
1KUQS  as  many  special  emblems  of  mourning  that 
have  both  national  and  personal  meaning.  These  fab- 
rics are  made  in  all  grades,  needed  as  they  are  by  high 
and  low  alike,  and,  according  to  the  faith  of  the 
weaver,  symbols  of  immortality  adorn  them.  Many 
of  the  same  general  designs  that  are  found  upon  grave 
carpets  decorate  antique  prayer-rugs,  and  the  study  of 
the  "prayer-rug"  is  of^paramount  interest. 

When    the    call    was  first   sounded    in   the   seventh 
century —  * 

"  Turn  whereso'er  ye  be,  to  Mecca's  stone, 
Thitherwards  turn  ! 

—  the  necessity  was  forced  upon  the  followers  of  the 
prophet  to  make  for  themselves  some  sacred  thing 
upon  which  to  kneel.     Tunics  and  outer  garments  or 


USES    OF    ORIENTAL    RUGS 


17 


A 


A. 


Kcvhxak 
braver.  uicJxe 


J' 


^ 


//Mka.^ 


VARIOUS  FORMS  OF  THE  PRAYER-NICHE  IN  RUGS 


18  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

some  woven  fabrics  were  used,  until  thought  seized 
the  inventive  genius  of  the  weavers,  and  its  applica- 
_,      __.  tion  to  warp  and   woof  produced  the 

Ubefl}raget>  F~,    fi  . ,    /\, 

^^  prayer-rug.      1  he  held  ot   the  rug  was 

IKUy  .        j  ,        ... 

pointed  at  one  end,  which  was  sup- 
posed to  be  placed  during  the  prayer  so  that  the  wor- 
shipper should  face  toward  Mecca,  that  hallowed  and 
sacred  spot  where  King  Solomon,  more  than  fifteen 
hundred  years  before  the  birth  of  Mohammed,  is 
supposed  to  have  gone  on  a  pilgrimage,  transported 
hither  and  thither  upon  his  fabulous  green  carpet, 
which  at  his  bidding  arose  from  the  place  where  it 
was  stretched,  and  floated  through  space,  covered  with 
a  canopy  of  flying  birds. 

The  necessity  of  facing  Mecca  has  given  distinctive 
patterns  not  only  to  the  main  outlines  in  the  designs 
of  prayer-rugs,  but,  in  detail,  many  of  the  articles 
used  by  the  pious  Mohammedan  are  sometimes 
worked  into  the  fabric.  A  compass  was  necessarily 
carried  to  determine  location,  so  that  the  rug  might 
point  in  the  right  direction.  A  comb  to  keep  in  order 
the  beard,  and  beads  to  assist  in  prayer,  were  needful 
accessories,  and  accordingly  were  used  in  decoration. 
The  Moslem  rosary  consists  of  ninety-nine  beads, 
each  one  designating  one  of  the  "  ninety-nine  beauti- 
ful names  of  Allah."  These  various  articles  are  to  be 
generally  found  in  the  pointed  end  of  the  prayer-rug 
if  they  are  used  at  all  in  designs.  This  pointed  end  is 
called  the  "  niche,"  and  it  is  supposed  to  imitate  the 
form  of  the  "  Mihrab,"  or  niche,  in  the  temple  at 
Mecca,  where  the  Koran  is  kept. 

"  With  strands  of  vow  and  shreds  of  prayer"  have 


THE    MYTHICAL    JOURNEY    OF    SOLOMON     TO     PARADISE,     TRANS- 
PORTED   THITHER    ON   THE   GREEN    CARPET  DESCRIBED 

ON   PAGE   j7 


li  UG-PLA  TE  III 


K ASH  AN  SILK  RUG 


RUG-FLATE  III 


K ASH  AN  SILK  RUG 
Loaned  by  Mr.  James  W.  Ellsworth 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

"  *-i   HIS  rug  shows  nomadic  handling  of  de- 

-*■      sign  and  dyes."  S.  S.  Costikyan. 

Author's  Description 

The  designs  in  this  hunting-rug  are  crude 
and  uninteresting,  but  the  colours  are  so  fine 
that,  as  a  fabric,  it  has  great  charm.  Its  age  is 
plainly  written  at  the  top  of  the  rug,  showing 
that  it  is  an  early  nineteenth-century  production. 
The  selvage  has  been  replaced  by  a  new  one, 
and  fringe  has  been  added  to  that  of  the  origi- 
nal rug.  Upon  a  background  of  clear  primary 
red,  softened  by  age  and  atmospheric  influences, 
rests  a  diamond-shaped  medallion  of  deep  blue. 
The  Persian  coat  of  arms  (the  sun  rising  behind 
a  lion  holding  a  yataghan)  appears  above  and 
below  the  central  panel. 


RUG-PLATE  111 


USES    OF    ORIENTAL    RUGS  19 

been  woven,  by  and  for  the  faithful,  rugs  which  not 
only  bear  evidence  of  Arabian  and  Turkish  ideas  of 
the  needs  of  time,  and  the  belief  in  immortality,  but 
designs  that  show  that  the  creed  of  Islam  found  devo- 
tees  in  central  and  eastern  Asia,  and  even  among  the 
dwellers  in  far  Cathay.  Special  emblems  of  local 
significance  were  worked  into  prayer-rugs  ;  and  Zoroas- 
trian  cypress-trees,  Indian  lotus-flowers,  and  Chinese 
Buddhistic  symbols  testify  to  the  mingling  of  beliefs. 
Although  prayer-rugs  are  now  made  for  commercial 
purposes,  and  vast  numbers  of  them  are  sold,  artistic 
specimens  always  command  our  interest  in  no  ordinary 
way,  for  there  is  always  the  possibility  that  upon  their 
surfaces  some  true  believers  in  all  that  is  good  in  the 
teachings  of  Mohammed  have  bowed  toward  Mecca 
in  response  to  the  call  to  prayer: 

"  Allahu  ! 
La  Ilah,  illahu  !  " 

In  poetic  fancy  this  thought  has  been  given  expres- 
sion in  the  verses  of  Miss  Anne  Reeve  Aldrich: 

"MY  PERSIAN  PRAYER-RUG. 

"  Made  smooth,  some  centuries  ago, 
By  praying  eastern  devotees  , 
Blurred  by  those  dusky  naked  feet, 
And  somewhat  worn  by  shuffling  knees, 
In  Ispahan. 

"  It  lies  upon  my  modern  floor, 
And  no  one  prays  there  any  more, 
It  never  felt  the  worldly  tread 
Of  smart  bottines  high  and  red, 
In  Ispahan. 


2o  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

"  And  no  one  prays  there  now,  I  said? 
Ah,  well  that  was  a  hasty  word. 
Once,  with  my  face  upon  its  woof, 
A  fiercer  prayer  is  never  heard 
In  Ispahan. 

"  But  still  I  live,  who  prayed  that  night 
That  death  might  come  ere  came  the  light. 
Did  any  soul  in  black  despair 
Breathe,  crouching  here,  that  reckless  prayer 
In  Ispahan  ? 

"  Perhaps.     I  trust  that  heaven  lent 
A  kinder  ear  to  him  than  me, 
If  some  brown  sufferer,  weeping,  begged 
To  have  his  wretched  soul  set  free 
In  Ispahan. 

"  I  fancy  I  shall  like  to  meet 
The  dead  who  prayed  here,  and  whose  feet 
Wore  that  rich  carpet  dim  and  frayed. 
Peace  to  your  souls,  O  friends,  who  prayed 
In  Ispahan." 


CHAPTER  III 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

UNTIL  within  a  century  the  casual  student  of 
things  Oriental  has  been  apt  to  look  upon  Asia  chiefly 
as  "  Bible  country,"  and  through  a  glass  of  semi-reli- 
gious colouring  has  endeavoured  to  make  the  things 
of  long  ago  explain  the  life  of  the  intervening  cen- 
turies. Without  doubt  the  tent  of  Abraham  was 
similar  to  those  which  have  been  used  ever  since  by 
nomad  tribes,  and  the  curtains  before  it  probably 
resembled  the  kliilims  we  know  so  well  to-day,  but 
the  modern  student  has  added  to  his  research  by  con- 
sidering both  Christian  and  Mohammedan  ascendency 
and  would  not  look  upon  the  art  product  of  to-day  as 
revealing  in  absolute  purity  the  thought  life  of  the 
Abrahamic  period.  More  or  less,  to  be  sure,  racial 
conditions  and  methods  have  obtained  in  spite  of 
changes  brought  about  by  the  Cross  and  the  Crescent. 
The  ages  were  not  dark  ages,  in  the  Orient,  that  are 
chronicled  as  such  in  the  history  of  Christian  Europe, 
and  the  influences  from  the  Orient  were  felt  through 
the  Saracenic  conquest,  and  were  noticeable  in  Euro- 
pean art  antedating  the  Crusades. 

The  Christian  Dark  Ages  were  explained  by  writers 
of  Sunday-school  text-books,  as  without  light,  so  far 
as  the  development  of  Christian  truth  was  concerned, 


22  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

and  all  but  the  bare  outlines  of  Mohammedan  su- 
premacy was  eliminated.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  we  are  speaking  of  the  way  historical  facts  have 
influenced  art,  and  are  not  making  an  argument  for 
or  against  methods  of  dealing  with  religious  truths. 
Formerly,  missionaries  with  eager  desire  to  establish 
the  Cross  in  foreign  lands,  wrote  in  their  books  of 
travel  more  about  converts  made  than  about  manners 
and  customs.  "  Idols "  were  spoken  of  indiscrimi- 
nately as  such,  without  according  any  individuality  to 
either  the  man  or  the  animal  worshipped.  Not  until 
religious  fervour  was  accompanied  with  scholarly 
research  did  we  receive  much  valuable  assistance 
from  the  books  of  travel  written  by  missionaries. 

When  English  interests  in  the  far  East  developed, 
the  government  sent  out  scholars  whose  reports  were 
hailed  with  delight  by  waiting  students,  and  the 
monographs  published,  and  the  reports  in  the  Asiatic 
Society  journals,  were  among  the  earliest  literature 
that  we  could  claim  in  the  bibliography  of  the  rug. 
When  Mr.  Vincent  Robinson  wrote  his  earliest  papers 
for  the  "  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts,"  and  the  dis- 
tinguished secretaries  of  various  museums  and  socie- 
ties expressed  to  the  world  their  convictions  in  regard 
to  objects  examined,  we  began  to  feel  that  we  had 
something  definite  and  tangible  to  take  hold  of,  and 
we  sought  for  encyclopaedic  information  which  might 
enlighten  us  in  regard  to  products  and  their  uses  in 
manufacture.  From  ethnological  and  consular  re- 
ports we  were  able  to  form  a  somewhat  definite  idea 
of  the  rug-producing  countries  and  their  physical 
aspects;   of  highland  and  lowland,  towns  and  villages, 


MUG-PLATE  IV 


IRAN  RUG 


MUG-PLATE  IV 


IRAN  RUG 
Loaned  by  Mr.  James  W.  Ellsworth 

Author's  Description 

c7  HIS  rare  old  Persian  hunting-rug  teas 
-*-  woven  in  picture  form  to  serve  as  a  wall 
decoration.  So  skilfully  has  the  weaver  used 
his  colours  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  distin- 
guish floral  from  animal  forms  outside  the  cen- 
tral panel  in  the  field  of  the  rug,  as  a  blush  is 
diffused  over  all,  which  mingles  the  varying 
shades,  and  tones  them  in  such  a  way  that  the 
whole  effect  is  of  lustre. 

The  seven  border  stripes  are  finely  woven, 
and  fully  four  hundred  knots  are  tied  in  each 
square  inch  of  the  surface. 

The  rug  claims  two  hundred  years'1  existence, 
which  is  not  too  great  an  age  for  its  beauty  of 
weave  to  warrant. 


-.* \y>         j--   ~_ 


-■  ■ 

RUG-PLATE  IV 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  23 

and  the  manners  and  customs  all  through  the  caravan- 
traversed  East.  Neither  railroads  nor  cameras  aided 
the  early  writers,  and  yet  much  was  described  by 
them  that  interpreted  Eastern  affairs  better  than 
aught  else  ever  has;  for,  without  intention  of  proving 
a  point,  certain  things  were  mentioned,  or  illustrated, 
by  laborious  process,  which  did  reveal  and  explain  to 
those  whose  eyes  were  ready  to  read,  and  whose  intel- 
ligence was  quickened  to  respond. 

After  this  followed  more  popular  writings,  sent  to 
both  Europe  and  America  by  their  respective  minis- 
ters to  Asia,  and  by  army  and  navy  officers  who  de- 
scribed in  the  most  graphic  manner  things  that  really 
occurred,  thus  adding  fuel  to  already  kindled  imagi- 
nations. Scrap-books  containing  all  that  could  be 
secured  from  periodicals  of  the  time  are  among  the 
most  cherished  possessions  of  those  whose  interest  in 
the  Orient  has  now  covered  nearly  half  a  century  of 
time.  Following  the  scarcely  obtainable  accounts  of 
present-day  conditions  in  Asia,  came  the  reports  from 
exploration  and  archaeological  societies,  which,  with 
overwhelming  conviction,  indorsed  the  speculations  of 
our  foremost  thinkers ;  and  in  the  unearthed  testi- 
mony, cut  into  stone  which  had  been  buried  for 
centuries,  were  found  mute  answers  to  questions 
that  had  been  asked  by  antiquarians  throughout  the 
years. 

To-day  we  stand  at  the  result  of  all  the  ages.     We 
have  not  only  all  that  has  been   written   of  a  specula-' 
tive  nature  in  regard  to  Oriental  rugs,  but  all  the  facts 
that   could  be   gathered  for  our  use  by  travellers  and 
writers  ;  and  still  we  may   be  confounded  by   the  sim- 


24  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

plest  specimen  of  the  weaver's  art  in  our  possession 
unless  we  have  ourselves  some  method  which  shall 
serve  as  a  key  with  which  we  may  unlock  the  mys- 
teries of  Eastern  thought  which  it  represents. 


RUG-PLATE  V 


KULAH  PRAYER-RUG 


HUG-PLATE   V 


KULAH  PRAYER-RUG 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

"  <•/  HIS  rug  ivas  originally  brought  from  the 
-*-  island  of  Rhodes,  a  very  rare  and  perfect 
specimen,  old  and  original.1'1 

Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat. 

Author's  Description 

The  allotment  of  border  stripes  is  after  a  dif- 
ferent order  in  this  old  Rhodian  rug  from  that 
folloived  in  either  Ghiordez,  Kulah,  or  Melhaz. 
To  the  narroiv  stripes  the  Kulah  weavers  look 
for  suggestion,  ivhile  in  the  squared  design  of 
the  main  border  the  palmate  flower  with  three 
buds  shoics  one  of  the  earliest  patterns  from 
xvhich  the  more  ornate  forms  of  Asia  Minor 
iceave  were  evolved.  The  motifs,  indiscrimi- 
nately arranged  on  the  narroiv  stripe,  indirect- 
ly copy  the  old  Rhodian  motif  sometimes  called 
"  sun- snakes,"  while  the  floral  festoons  in  the 
second  and  sixth  stripes  point  to  a  late  develop- 
ment of  the  meander.  The  entire  field  of  the 
rug  is  filled  with  a  geometric  pi  ant- form  grow- 
ing from  a  jardinier,  while  in  the  border  bound- 
ing the  field  appears  a  most  beautiful  variant 
of  the  water  motif. 


RUG-PLATE   V 


CHAPTER   IV 

CHART   SYSTEM   OF   STUDY 

The  Oriental  rug  in  our  Occidental  home!  How 
may  we  study  it  ? 

In  offering  the  chart,  on  page  26,  which,  as  a  system 
of  mnemonics,  will  serve  to  outline  for  us  the  informa- 
tion we  should  possess  about  each  individual  specimen 
we  examine,  there  is  no  claim  made  to  exhaustive 
knowledge,  but  rather  an  intimation  that  by  adopting 
this  simple  method  each  student  may  secure  for  him- 
self that  which  will  represent  his  own  research,  and 
which  may  in  a  way  be  unlike  all  else  that  has  gone 
before  it, — a  weaving  or  fabrication  of  his  own  brain, 
with  warp  of  fact  and  woof  of  fancy  that  may  reveal 
some  of  the  great  truths  and  mysteries  of  Oriental 
lore.  Like  the  ancients  who  marked  off  a  definite 
space  in  which  to  weave  "  a  product  of  time  in  the 
field  of  eternity,"  we  may  claim  it  our  right  to  im- 
press our  individuality  upon  the  present  by  carefully 
formulating  definite  opinions  in  regard  to  the  essen- 
tial points  in  rug-study. 

The  bare  outlines  of  the  chart  represent  the  laying 
out  of  the  scheme. 

We  devote  the  middle  panel  on  the  field  of  the 
rug-chart  to  the  statement  of  our  belief  that  the  gov- 
erning   and    central    thought    in    all    artistic    weaving 


•IliH  /  t  i  f  i 


.C^ 


.*■* 

t 


CHART  SYSTEM  OF  STUDY      27 

produced  by  early  peoples  in  strict  adherence  to  tra- 
dition is  that  the  Oriental  rug  is  a  thing  of  sentiment, 
and  should  be  studied  as  such.  It  has  always  been 
the  natural  tendency  for  human  beings  to  adorn  their 
tents,  temples,  and  tombs  with  the  choicest  work  of 
their  hands.  Applying  this  thought  to  any  antique 
rug,  we  may  discover  certain  features  that  appeal  to 
us  as  verifying  this  assertion,  and  again  and  again  we 
may  try  to  work  our  way  into  the  thought  behind 
the  evidence  of  it,  until  gradually  we  begin  to  detect 
the  spirit  of  modern  commercialism  when  it  exists,  or 
to  note  the  presence  of  that  very  sentiment  for  which 
we  have  learned  to  look. 

Questions  quickly  follow  our  initial  interest  and 
investigation,  and  we  begin  to  wonder  with  what  ma- 
terials the  ancients  worked,  and  how  they  were  pre- 
pared. Such  facts,  as  we  gather  them,  let  us  group  in 
the  column  to  the  right  in  the  rug-chart,  adding  in- 
formation, from  time  to  time,  as  our  discoveries  con- 
tinue. In  response  to  further  questioning  we  devote 
column  two  to  the  consideration  of  colours  and  their 
value.  Thus  in  sequence  we  pass  over  to  the  left, 
and  in  column  three  the  styles  of  weaving  and  of 
looms  are  enumerated,  while  in  column  four  we  en- 
deavour to  classify  the  various  paraphernalia,  finally 
reaching  the  ultimate  and  significant  assertion  that 
the  knot  carpet  marks  the  highest  development  of  the 
weaver's  art. 

All  the  information  we  may  glean  in  thus  broadly 
considering  the  subject  may  be  applied  to  weaving  at 
large ;  but  as  our  purpose  is  to  study  Oriental  rugs,  we 
may  divide  the  lower  part  of  the  rug-chart   into  five 


28  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

sections,  with  more  or  less  fidelity  to  the  position  in 
Asia,  east  and  west,  of  the  various  rug-producing 
countries,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  plan  of  study  is 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  those  who  wish  to  secure 
the  simplest  and  briefest  method,  and  at  the  same 
time  so  to  outline  the  subject  that  it  may  accommo- 
date their  needs  as  they  advance,  excluding  from  their 
minds  for  the  present  all  preconceived  notions. 

Progressing  in  our  application  of  broad  consider- 
ations, we  note  that  primitive  people  might  have 
arrived  at  a  state  of  mere  technical  perfection  along 
the  lines  indicated,  so  that  in  answer  to  their  needs 
textiles  might  have  been  simply  but  perfectly  woven, 
serving  as  canopy  for  shelter,  and  covering  for  body. 
Then  followed  evidence  of  thought,  however,  and 
the  work  of  the  hands  of  men  was  crowned  with  the 
thought  of  their  brains.  Thus  we  approach  the  result 
which  in  its  fullest  development  we  call  ornament. 

In  the  upper  corners  of  the  chart  we  group  the 
various  methods  of  dividing  and  subdividing  this 
branch  of  the  subject,  coming  face  to  face  with  the 
realization  that  there  must  have  been  meaning  in 
most  of  the  patterns  which  have  become  historic, 
else  they  would  not  have  been  so  oft  repeated  ;  and 
we  turn  for  further  light  on  the  question  to  the  star 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  field  of  the  chart,  which  indi- 
cates the  various  religions  that  have  most  considerably 
influenced  art.  We  find  that  this  star  is  placed  in 
the  part  of  the  design  which,  we  shall  discover  as  we 
proceed,  indicates  that  the  rug  is  a  prayer-rug,  and,  as 
such,  is  distinguished  from  others  by  the  shape  of  the 
upper  end  of  the  field.     This  end  is  always  arched  or 


CAUCASIAN  RUG   SHOWING   KAZAN. 

DAGHESTAN  AND   SHIRVAN 

FEATURES 

rHIS  illustration  is  given,  to  show  thf-  lack 
of  fidelity  to  trctdition  and  the  mongrel 
nature  of  the  designs  in  the  vast  majority  of 
modern  fabrics  with  which  the  markets  of  to- 
day are  crowded. 




¥,  E 


'.    • 


\  in 

mo- 
g  from  their 


ider- 
I •■     jjt    have 


.tUSj  "A   v^viiow^  &$$  m  j     alonS 

YJaTAWW,    (\  ■  ds 

I 

\'»  the 

:    tin      ~        !     oil     i      ol     r~      .  :     l   w :    .;■■  -lie 

this 
ith  the 
ting   in 


ric, 

.and 

;    to  the  star 

ibly 

iced  in 

3  we 

as 


CHART  SYSTEM  OF  STUDY      29 

pointed,  and  differently  ornamented  from  any  other 
part  of  the  rug.  Over  the  star  appears  the  comb, 
one- of  the  emblems  of  the  Mohammedan  faith,  and 
immediately  above  the  comb  is  drawn  in  triangular 
form  the  spot  upon  which  the  pious  Mohammedan 
may  place,  if  he  will,  his  bit  of  sacred  earth  from 
Mecca,  upon  which  his  forehead  may  rest  as  he  kneels 
in  prayer.  With  these  symbols  of  Moslem  faith  we 
mingle  those  of  the  other  great  religions,  and  sur- 
round the  prayer  niche  with  as  many  or  as  few  of 
them  as  our  knowledge  will  permit,  never  placing  any 
there — even  though  the  space  remains  empty — that 
we  are  not  personally  convinced  are  symbols  standing 
for  absolute  thought. 

Hovering  over  and  among  these  expressions  of 
thought,  we  leave  space  for  the  consideration  of  the 
forces  that  made  from  these  scattered  motifs  of  orna- 
ment the  great  styles  which  may  be  recognised  wher- 
ever found,  whether  near  or  far,  from  their  places  of 
origin.  Pilgrimages  and  wars  have  carried  the  evi- 
dences of  man's  thought  from  one  remote  place  to 
another,  and  as  we  learn  the  various  world-styles  we 
will  name  the  threads  of  fringe  which  extend  beyond 
the  upper  surface  of  our  imaginary  rug,  using  only 
such  names  as  we  are  willing  to  indorse,  for  we  are 
to  be  the  individual  weavers  of  facts  gleaned  by 
ourselves. 

It  remains  for  us  at  our  leisure  to  consider  again 
the  five  divisions  of  rug  country,  and  with  open  atlas 
and  an  outline  map  we  may  make  our  own  discover- 
ies, holding  to  our  determination  to  confine  ourselves 
to  independent  research,  arranging  both  encyclopaedic 


3o  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

and  historic  information  in  as  original  a  way  as  is 
possible.  As  we  learn  to  know  various  weaves,  and 
as  we  examine  great  numbers  of  actual  rugs,  we  may 
begin  to  subdivide  and  name  each  thread  of  the 
fringe  extending  beyond  the  lower  surface  of  the  rug 
chart.  Our  attempt  should  be  to  study  types  as 
nearly  as  possible,  discarding,  until  we  are  more 
familiar  with  main  features,  every  object  that  is  com- 
plex in  pattern  and  which  overtaxes  our  limited 
powers.  In  museums  and  in  illustrated  books  of  travel 
we  shall  find  pictorial  representations  of  early  thought, 
grouped  together  without  any  intention  of  proving 
our  theories,  which  may,  if  studied  aright,  help  us  to 
formulate  our  ideas  and  establish  our  standards. 

The  plan  thus  outlined  is  a  simple  one,  and,  after  all, 
is  only  a  list  of  questions  so  arranged  that  they  will 
readily  suggest  themselves  as  a  formula  of  procedure 
when  we  wish  to  discover  the  truth  concerning  any 
Oriental  rug  brought  to  our  notice.  But  because  the 
questions  do  follow  one  another  consecutively,  they 
force  themselves  upon  us,  and  train  our  perception  so 
that  we  eventually  take  in  at  a  glance  the  whole 
make-up  of  the  specimen  examined. 


a 
13, 
w 

u 

w 
<& 
o 


CHAPTER   V 


MATERIALS 


PRIMITIVE  people,  in  whatever  part  of     r 
the  world  they  have  dwelt,  have  used  the 
same    natural    materials   in    rug-manufac- 
ture,   vegetable    always    antedating   animal 
products,   and   the    list   may  be   framed   as 
follows : 


Leaves 

Fibre 

Jute 

Hair 

Reeds 

Hemp 

Cotton 

Fur 

Grasses 

Flax 

Wool 

Silk 

These  materials,  in  the  hands  of  the  sav- 
age races,  have  been  similarly  treated.  Mat- 
ting together  leaves,  hair,  fur,  etc. ;  weaving 
reeds  and  grasses ;  and  tying  twigs  and 
branches,  have  given  three  methods  of  mak- 
ing rude  floor-coverings.  Evolving  from 
these  three  simple,  natural  methods  we  have 
felt  rues,  used  in  the  Orient  to  cover  the 
floors  before  spreading  down  coarser  rugs  ; 
weaving  of  all  sorts  where  woof  is  run 
through  warp  to  make  fabric ;  and,  from 
the  tying  together  so  as  to  hold  in  place 
one  material  by  some  other,  we  trace  that 
which,  in  its  fullest  development,  we  call 
lace. 


1*S 


\K 


■y" 


MATERIALS 


32 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


(i)  Primitive  people,  noting  the  matting  of  leaves 
in  the  forest,  have  copied  the  process  in  their  art. 

(2)  Noting  the  interlacing  of  fibres,  etc.,  they  have 
again  copied  the  same  in  art. 

(3)  Noting  the  web  of  the  spider  (circles  held  to- 
gether by  finest  tracery),  they  have  rivalled  it  in  per- 
fection of  weaving. 

Thus  we  see  that  to  individuals  alike,  wherever 
they  may  have  dwelt,  have  come  hints  and  revela- 
tions from  the  great  world  of  Nature. 

The  Oriental  weaver  doubtless  made  his  reed  mat 
before  he  wove  his  woollen  rug.  His  first  woven  rug, 
like  the  first  textiles  of  all  people  alike,  was  without 
doubt,  like  the  kliilims  of  to-day  and  the  Navajo 
blankets  we  so  highly  esteem.  It  was  a  later  thought 
to  add  ornament  of  any  kind,  making  a  relief  surface, 
whether  the  decoration  be  applied  with  feathers,  shells, 
or  knots. 

The  materials  used  for  the  fully  developed  art  are 
silk,  the  wool  of  sheep,  and  the  hair  of  goats  and 
camels.  It  makes  all  the  difference  in  the  world  how 
these  materials  are  treated.  Wool  may  be  lustrous  or 
dull  according  to  whether  or  not  it  is  carefully  pre- 
pared. When  shorn  from  living  sheep  in  good  condi- 
tion it  is  apt  to  have  life  and  a  quality  which  lends 
sheen  to  the  spun  wool.  If  the  wool  is  taken  from  a 
dead  sheep  or  fleece,  it  may  lack  lustre  and  vitality, — 
or  at  least  so  says  tradition.  Camels  from  cold  climates 
shed  their  hair  when  they  reach  warmer  places,  and 
this  hair  is  often  utilized,  but  does  not  give  as  good 
results  as  when  deliberately  removed  from  the  ani- 
mal.    Pasturage    influences  the   nature  of    the  mate- 


GREEK.    CHURCH    KMHROlDERY 


MATERIALS  33 

rials  animals  yield  to  rug-makers,  and  in  studying 
tribal  wanderings  we  find  that  direction  is  determined 
by  the  nature  of  the  country.  High  altitudes  produce 
very  different  wool  and  hair  from  low  levels,  and  all 
these  things  must  be  considered  by  the  student. 

The  general  name  for  all  the  rugs  with  tufted  sur- 
faces or  nap,  made  in  the  Orient,  is  "  knot  carpet,"  the 
effect  being  produced  by  tying  knots  of  coloured  wool, 
hair,  or  silk  upon  one  or  more  of  the  warp  threads, 
and  then  fixing  all  in  place  by  bringing  down  with  a 
comb  several  threads  of  the  woof.  Here  is  where  a 
small  amount  of  knowledge  is  of  immense  value  to 
the  collector.  We  hold  a  rug  in  our  hands, — an  object 
to  study.  We  notice  how  many  knots  are  tied  in  each 
square  inch  of  surface, — thirty,  forty-nine,  one  hun- 
dred, or  whatever  the  number  may  be.  Rug  connois- 
seurs tell  us  how  the  fineness  of  rugs  depends  upon  the 
quality  of  the  materials  used,  the  number  of  stitches 
to  the  inch,  and  how  uncommon  it  now  is  to  find  as 
well-made  articles  as  formerly.  This  leads  us  to  con- 
sider the  relative  merits  of  the  objects  themselves, 
and  we  may  pick  up  any  Oriental  rug  we  possess  and, 
looking  at  its  fringe,  may  note  if  it  is  of  wool,  hair, 
or  cotton.  Satisfying  ourselves  in  regard  to  this, 
we  shall  then  know  of  what  the  warp  of  the  rug  is 
made.  We  may  cut  off  a  thread  of  the  fringe,  if  in 
doubt,  burn  it,  and,  when  trained  to  distinguish  the 
difference  between  the  odour  of  burning  wool  and 
burning  cotton,  can  determine  absolutely  whether  it 
be  cotton  or  not. 

Examination   of  the   woof  by  separating   the   tufts 
and    noting  how  many   threads   are  run    through  the 


34  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

warp  to  hold  the  knots  in  place  will  show  whether 
the  woof  itself  is  made  of  wool,  hair,  or  cotton. 
Sometimes  two  strands  will  be  of  cotton  and  one  of 
wool  twisted  together,  as  is  often  the  case  in  modern 
rugs.  Now  if  the  rug  was  meant  to  be  an  all-wool 
rug  the  presence  of  cotton  would  show  an  attempt 
to  cheapen  the  article.  If,  however,  the  warp  or  woof 
were  intentionally  of  cotton,  we  are  able  at  once  to 
locate  it  more  or  less  absolutely,  as  certain  rug-weav- 
ers invariably  use  cotton  for  warp  threads.  The  finest 
and  most  beautiful  Persian  rugs  are  made  on  a 
cotton  warp,  as  their  frankly  confessed  white  cotton 
fringe  will  testify. 

The  next  step  in  the  procedure  is  to  note  how 
many  knots  there  are  in  a  square  inch  of  this  special 
rug,  and  whether  the  ends  of  the  knots  are  long  or 
short;  whether  they  lie  down  over  the  woof  threads,  or 
stand  up  close  together,  making  a  surface  like  velvet. 
Remembering  other  rugs,  and  comparing  each  new 
example  with  all  others,  will  very  quickly  put  one  in 
possession  of  many  independent  theories.  Individual 
taste  may  prefer  a  coarse  rug,  choosing  it  rather  than 
a  fine  one ;  but  a  coarse  rug  should  be  known  as  such, 
and  the  reasons  for  its  excellence  should  be  accounted 
for.  We  never  look  for  many  stitches  to  the  square 
inch  in  a  rug  whose  chief  charm  consists  of  the  fact 
that  it  is  heavy  and  warm.  In  such  cases  the  wool  has 
been  loosely  spun,  making  a  coarse  warp,  upon  which 
are  tied  loosely  woven  threads  in  big  knots,  giving  it  a 
high  nap  which  so  overlaps  the  warp  threads  that  the 
sides  of  the  knot-ends  fall  over  the  woof  threads  and 
overlap  each  other,  quite  unlike  the  rugs  where  warp 


MATERIALS  35 

threads  are  tightly  twisted  and  of  superlatively  fine 
material,  upon  which  just  as  many  knots  have  been 
tied  as  can  possibly  be  crowded,  and  the  upright  ends 
then  clipped  close,  so  as  to  make  an  even  pile.  Some 
silk  rugs  are  so  fine  that  many  hundred  stitches  or 
knots  are  crowded  into  a  square  inch,  and  finely  spun 
wool  and  hair  can  be  treated  so  as  to  occupy  as  little 
room  as  silk.  Rare  old  camel's-hair  rugs  were  made 
with  a  far  greater  number  of  stitches  or  knots  to  the 
square  inch  than  others  made  to-day  of  the  same  mate- 
rials prepared  in  a  different  way.  We  must  consider 
materials  always,  when  judging  of  the  comparative 
merits  of  rugs.  It  holds  to  reason  that  closely 
woven  rugs  will  wear  better  than  those  loosely  made, 
and  that  a  fine,  even  warp,  so  tightly  pressed  together 
as  to  keep  each  knot-end  erect,  will  make  a  more  vel- 
vet-like surface  than  when  long  ends  are  left  in  shaggy 
fashion.  We  may  prefer  the  long  warp  to  the  short, 
but  that  is  another  matter. 

The  natural  desire  to  ornament  plain  surfaces 
brought  about  an  attempt  to  apply  decoration  of  one 
kind  and  another  upon  a  woven  material.  A  plain 
fabric  once  made,  a  free-hand  sort  of  decoration  could 
easily  be  applied  with  paint.  Later,  crude  methods 
of  printing  and  stencilling  were  adopted  in  the  orna- 
mentation of  tent-cloth  and  other  woven  fabrics,  such 
becoming  highly  ornate  and  proving  a  successful  way 
of  perpetuating  symbolic  interpretation  of  current 
thoughts.  To  weave  in  pattern  was  not  as  easy  as  to 
apply  decoration.  Therefore  the  early  attempts  thus 
to  produce  satisfactory  results  show  many  slips  that 
eventually  became  patterns  of  adventition,  and,  though 


36 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


at  first  accidentally  produced,  such  became  finally 
historic  and  immensely  significant.  The  check,  the 
stripe,  and  many  other  patterns  were  discovered  by 


©\©  ill! 


!!; 


■■; 


S! 


CHANGE  IN  DESIGN  CAUSED  BY  LIMITATIONS  IN  MATERIALS. 

one  and  another  weaver  independently.  Tufts  were 
originally  made  on  woven  fabrics  by  tying  on  various 
things, — grasses,  feathers,  beads,  shells,  etc., — and 
by  embroidering  or  applying  decorations.  These  early 
and  primitive  means  of  producing  relief  surfaces 
gave  afterward  to  the  new  method  of  tying  in  knots 
of  wool,  patterns  that  imitated  materials  formerly 
used,  so  that  in  very  ancient  specimens  we  find 
feather  mosaic  work  reproduced,  and  coloured  beads 
and  shells  copied  in  designs  worked  out  in  wool. 
Patchwork  in  which  the  bits  of  cloth  were  sewn  upon 
a  plain  woven  material,  so  as  to  tell  a  story  or  to  illus- 
trate a  legend,  has  been  called  by  some  Orientals 
"Thought-work,"  and  that  made  by  Armenian  women 
and  native  Syrian  workers  so  appealed  to  Botticelli 
that  he  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  idea  into  Italy, 
and  to  have  made  use  of  the  style  for  church  decora- 
tion. The  name  "  Opus  Consuetum  "  was  given  to 
this  cut-work,  in  which  one  material  was  decorated  by 
another  imposed  upon  it. 

The  steps  from  the  most   primitive   methods  to  the 


ARMENIAN   PATCHWORK  ILLUSTRATING  THE  STORY  OF  ST.  GEORGE 
AND   THE    DRAGON,    AND   OTHER   CHRISTIAN  SUBJECTS 


MATERIALS  37 

tying  in  of  knots  of  coloured  wools  upon  threads  of 
warp  were  taken  in  due  time,  first  one  and  then 
another  style  obtaining,  and  the  knot  carpet  marks 
the  highest  development  of  the  weaver's  art. 


CHAPTER  VI 

SYMBOLISM  OF  COLOUR 

From  materials  to  the  colouring  of  them !  A 
charming  pursuit,  and  one  that  has  always  had  about 
it  a  mysterious  fascination,  and  in  some  cases  almost 
a  supernatural  element  ! 

To  steal  from  flower,  leaf,  and  root  that  which  has 
made  it  a  thing  of  distinctive  beauty  ;  to  match  the 
rainbow  tints  which  of  all  marvels  seem  the  great- 
est ;  to  acquire  from  nature  secrets  that  seem  past 
finding  out ;  to  wait  upon  ripening  fruit  for  exactly 
the  right  mellowness  and  hue  of  its  rine, —  is  to  so 
associate  the  human  with  the  Divine  that  a  colour- 
maker  and  a  colour-mixer  among  primitive  peoples  was 
considered  gifted  beyond  others  of  the  clan.  What 
wonder  that  gems,  and  rocks,  and  ores,  the  most  en- 
during of  things  created,  suggested  most  beautiful 
colour  schemes,  and,  as  such,  both  the  gems  and  their 
colours  became  sacred.  So  when,  in  the  form  of 
"  totem,"  or  "  idol,"  the  thing  worshipped  was  per- 
sonified, it  was  of  course  made  of  appropriate  mate- 
rial and  colour. 

This  we  find  exemplified  perhaps  in  jade  more 
truly  than  in  anything  else, —  jade,  that  substance  so 
idolised  by  the  Chinese  that  everything  concerning  it 
is   governed   by  regulations    which  control   even    the 


SYMBOLISM    OF    COLOUR  39 

smallest  details.  Jade  {yu),  as  a  standard  for  char- 
acter, has  been  likened  to  virtue,  the  high  value  at- 
tached to  it  by  all  proves  it  to  be  truth.  Its  polish 
and  brilliancy  suggest  honesty,  its  compactness  accu- 
racy, its  sharp  angles  justice,  and  its  pearl-like  pen- 
dants politeness,  while  its  pure  sound  when  struck 
suggests  music,  and  the  fact  that  all  internal  cracks 
are  visible  from  the  outside  prove  its  sincerity.  "  Its 
lustre  is  permanency,  its  substance  represents  the 
Earth,  and  its  scheme  of  colour,  one  shade  not  ob- 
scuring another,  proves  its  loyalty." 

The  colours  of  jade  vary,  but  not  so  the  Chinese 
use  of  them.  Absolute  fidelity  to  tradition  marks 
the  colour  scheme  of  the  Mongolian,  and  in  the  life 
of  no  other  people  can  we  better  trace  back  the 
beginnings  of  colour-worship  than  among  the  Chinese. 
Our  study  of  colour  to-day  in  India,  Persia,  and  Tur- 
key is  of  what,  in  spite  of  overturned  governments 
and  alien  influences,  has  survived,  but  with  the  loss  of 
the  absolute  quality  which  characterises  adherence  to 
tradition  in  a  country  like  China,  a  living  country 
to-day  without  break  in  its  legend  or  history.  Mon- 
golian thought  has  left  its  impress  on  the  art  of  the 
entire  Orient,  and  a  study  of  the  rugs  and  textiles  of 
China,  and  especially  of  such  as  show  Buddhist 
thought,  throws  great  light  upon  many  of  the  East- 
ern combinations  and  shadings. 

Originally,  without  any  doubt,  all  peoples  attrib- 
uted to  the  elements  great  powers  of  control  of  hu- 
man life  and  conduct;  and  to  the  five  elements,  earth, 
water,  fire,  air,  and  ether  (or  the  beyond),  were  given 
significant    forms    and    colours.      These    have    regu- 


40  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

lar  precedence  in  the  primitive  art  of  all  nations, 
though  not  enough  definite  proof  exists  for  us  to 
claim  and  demonstrate  this  fact  save  in  Chinese  art. 
It  seems  to  have  been  an  early  idea  that  forces  should 
be  personified,  and  given  various  powers  and  attri- 
butes. A  sort  of  nursery  tale  method  of  teaching 
the  control  of  one  force  by  another  has  led  to  a 
theory  which  is  somewhat  as  follows:  Earth  (yellow) 
exists,  and  is  conquered  by  the  wood  (green)  which 
grows  upon  it.  The  destroyer,  metal  (white),  is  used 
to  conquer  wood  by  cutting  it  down.  Metal  in  turn 
submissively  yields  itself  to  the  heat  of  the  fire  (red) 
and  only  water  (black)  can  subdue  flame.  This  rea- 
soning led  to  a  primitive  use  of  colours  that  obtains 
to-day,  and  may  be  detected  in  ceremonial  objects  of 
the  far  East. 

Colour  controls  everything  even  now  in  China,  the 
imperial  yellow  most  often  alluded  to  as  a  Chinese 
colour  being  the  very  last  note  of  a  scale  which  had 
its  beginning  in  past  centuries.  During  the  present 
dynasty  yellow  has  been  used  by  the  Emperor,  and  in 
varying  shades  has  been  allowed  to  princes  of  high 
rank,  but  the  adherence  to  old  custom  was  observed 
in  its  selection  and  adoption.  "  On  the  accession  of 
a  new  dynasty,  one  of  the  five  elements  is  always 
chosen  as  a  symbol  and  affected  as  a  colour,"  and  it  is 
thought  by  many  that  to  this  system,  which  has 
endured  through  thousands  of  years,  may  be  traced 
the  possible  origin  of  "  national  colours."  We  can- 
not expect,  even  in  so  old  a  country  as  China,  where 
laws  and  regulations  have  been  established  for  centu- 
ries, to  find  these  elemental  thoughts  in  their  primi- 


MUG-PLATE   VI 


ANTIQUE  GREEK  RUG 


KUG-FLATE    VI 


ANTIQUE  GREEK  RUG 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

'  /^  LD  rugs  of  this  kind  were  made  for  church 
^  use,  to  give  to  their  folding  tent  churches  a 
certain  cathedral  atmosphere, — using  them  as 
if  they  were  cathedral  windows.  Some  of  these 
rugs  have  Christian  symbols  woven  into  them. 
This  teas  in  the  olden  times  hi  the  Greek  Archi- 
pelago, especially  in  the  island  of  Crete:  the 
Greeks  never  knew  when  through  fights  and  dis- 
cords they  ivoidd  be  foiled  to  go  from  one  place 
to  another. 

"  The  number  of  panels  in  these  rugs  vary 
from  one  to  three  in  each,  with  blue,  green,  or 
red  backgrounds. 

' '  As  it  is  perceptible  in  the  Shiraz  more  so 
than  in  other  makes  there  is  no  comparison  be- 
tween the  old  and  the  new  rugs,  as  nothing 
coidd  be  uglier  than  the  new  ones,  whereas 
the  old  ones  represent  a  rich  and  harmonious 
combination  of  the  most  beautiful  soft  colours, 
the  borders  being  of  the  rarest  canaries  and 
golden  shades. 

11  One  of  the  panels  of  this  rug  is  blue,    the 
other  salmon-pink;  and  around  and  between 
them  are  borders  of  the  most  beautiful  shades  of 
hay -in-the- field.     The  weave  of  this  rug  is  prin- 
cipally the  same  as  in  Turkish  rugs." 

Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat. 


RUG-PLATE  VI 


t 


SYMBOLISM    OF    COLOUR  41 

tive  purity,  but  they  have  so  influenced  the  past  that 
no  history  of  colour  would  be  complete  without 
recognition  of  these  great  underlying  truths.  Were 
this  a  study  of  symbolism  we  should  consider  the 
relation  of  other  peoples  toward  colour-demonstration 
of  their  beliefs,  but  it  is  only  by  way  of  suggestion 
that  the  foregoing  hints  have  been  given. 

The  obtaining  of  colours  from  natural  sources  has 
always  been  the  chief  glory  of  the  Oriental  crafts- 
man, who  thus  secured  what  we  term  "  fast  "  or  fixed 
shades.  Certain  of  these  were  known,  and  could  be 
made  by  following  formulae,  but  many  others  were 
the  result  of  accident  and  could  not  be  developed  at 
will.  There  were  few  places  where  the  custom  was  un- 
known of  making  holes  in  the  beds  of  brooks  during 
the  dry  season,  into  which,  when  the  rain  fell,  all  sorts 
of  vegetable  and  mineral  substances  were  deposited 
and  left  to  act  upon  each  other  until,  when  again  the 
dry  season  arrived,  the  contents  of  the  holes  were 
removed  by  the  dyers,  who,  grinding  all  together  in- 
discriminately, made  shades  which  vied  with  the  pi- 
geon's breast  in  beauty,  and  with  the  clouds  of  sunset 
in  variety.  Little  care  was  taken  in  old  times  in  the 
preparation  of  hair  and  wool,  one  lot  being  dyed  in  a 
pot  that  had  been  previously  used,  and  in  which  some 
of  the  dye  still  remained  to  tint,  without  intention, 
the  next  colour  employed.  A  beautiful  softness  was 
the  result  of  this  carelessness,  and  the  reds  and  blues 
were  rarely  of  the  same  shade  throughout.  What- 
ever is  to  be  said  about  present  methods,  and  the 
disastrous  effects  of  aniline  dyes,  we  may  speak  with 
absolute  authority  about  the  past.    Old  rugs  made   by 


42 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


people  who  dyed  their  wools  with  vegetable  dyes  pre- 
pared according  to  traditional  recipes  have  a  beauty 
all  their  own,  which  entitles  them  to  our  respect  and 
enthusiastic  appreciation. 

Colour  has  been  handled  in  widely  differing  ways, 
and  it  is  wrong  and  leads  to  erroneous  conclusions  to 
attempt  to  interpret  the  ideas  demonstrated  in  one 
part  of  the  world,  by  the  key  to  mysteries  else- 
where. Hence  it  is  apparent  that  the  Churchman, 
however  thoroughly  he  understands  and  adheres  to 
ecclesiastical  symbolism,  could  not  make  the  slight- 
est use  of  such  knowledge  in  the  interpretation  of 
Oriental  colours.  Nor  would  a  thorough  comprehen- 
sion of  the  Chinese  use  of  the  same  colours  as  those 
made  by  the  American  Indians  serve  to  enlighten  the 
student  who  has  discovered  the  similarity  of  intent 
that  causes  both  the  Indian  and  the  Mongolian  to 
endow  all  natural  forces  with  form  and  colour.  An 
important  table  has  been  furnished  by  Mr.  Stewart 
Culin,  director  of  the  Museum  of  Archaeology  of 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  which  he  offers 
us  for  purposes  of  comparison  with  the  Chinese 
classifications,  taken  from  "  Mayer's  Chinese  Reader's 
Manual." 

CHINESE    DIRECTION   AND   COLOUR   SYMBOLISM 


Directions 

Seasons 

Colours 

Elements 

Planets 

Metals 

North 

Winter 

Black 

Water 

Mercury 

Iron 

East 

Spring 

Green 

Wood 

Jupiter 

Lead,  tin 

South 

Summer 

Red 

Fire 

Mars 

Copper 

West 

Autumn 

White 

Metal 

Venus 

Silver 

Middle 


Yellow      Earth        Saturn 


Gold 


Directions 

North 

West 

South 

East 

Upper 

Lower 


SYMBOLISM     OF     COLOUR  43 

ZUNI    INDIAN    COLOUR   SYMBOLISM,    ETC. 


Seasons       Colours 


Winter 

Spring 

Summer 

Autumn 

Day 

Night 


Elements 

Air  (wind  or  breath) 

Water 

Fire 

Earth  (seeds  of) 


Middle     Year 


Yellow 

Blue 

Red 

White 

Many-colour     Waking,  or  life  condition 
Black  Sleeping,  or  death  condition 

All  colours       All  elements  and  conditions 


This  will  materially  help  us  to  detect  similarity 
of  method,  and  deference  paid  by  primitive  thinkers 
to  situations  and  conditions  that  are  not  always 
emphasised  when  civilisation  has  advanced.  "  The 
five  directions"  have  each  one  of  them  been  associ- 
ated with  a  colour  among  early  art-workers,  who  in- 
clude the  "  centre  "  or  "  middle  "  as  one  of  the  direc- 
tions, this  personal  relation  to  the  universe  being 
characteristic  of  all  primitive  belief.  Standing  at 
the  centre,  the  colour  yellow,  or  the  earth,  fortifies  the 
individual  whose  needs  call  for  protection.  From 
the  cold  North  come  winter,  water,  and  the  colour 
black.  From  the  East  comes  the  gracious  sunlight, 
bringing  spring,  wood,  and  the  colour  green.  From 
the  South  come  fire,  summer,  and  the  colour  red. 
From  the  West  come  autumn,  metals,  and  the  colour 
white.  The  Zuni  Indian  adds  to  his  divisions  "  upper  " 
and  "lower,"  giving  various  colours  to  the  "above," 
and  black  to  the  lower  regions  and  to  oblivion. 

With  these  extreme  cases  it  is  easy  to  demonstrate 
the  relation  of  colour  to  the  thought  life  of  all  the 
peoples    of    the    earth,    and     the     undesirability    of 


44  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

touching  too  lightly  so  important  a  subject.  Our 
observations  should  and  will  lead  us  to  a  recognition 
of  the  facts  that  seem  to  have  evolved  from  human 
ingenuity  and  effort  to  comprehend  natural  phe- 
nomena, and  we  finally  find  ourselves  equipped  with 
an  intelligent  system  with  which  we  may  approach 
the  rainbow-tinted  textiles  of  the  Orient. 


RUG-PLATE  VII 


ASIA  MINOR  RUG 


MUG-PLATE  VII 


ASIA  MINOR  RUG 
Size:  3.7X3.10 

Oriental  Experts  Description 

'  c/  HIS  rug  was  made  and  used  by  Greeks.  It 
-*•  is  the  oldest  rug  of  the  kind  I  have  ever 
seen.  Such  rugs  resemble  each  other  almost 
completely  in  their  design  and  size;  the  only 
difference  among  them  being  in  the  different 
shades  of  the  predominating  blue  and  red  col- 
ours, and  the  degrees  of  softness  or  ugliness  re- 
sulting from  duration  of  existence." 

Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat. 


RUG- PLATE   VII 


CHAPTER   VII 


APPLICATION   OF    COLOUR — DYES 

t 


With  flowers  of  thought  we  have 
twined  the  second  column  of  the  chart, 
and  now  must  practically  apply  our  de- 
ductions to  objects  at  hand. 

Rues  might  have  been  made  without 
colour  and  would  have  served  utilitarian 
purposes  as  well,  but  they  would  hardly 
have  found  their  way  out  of  the  Orient 
had  not  their  flower-  and  gem-like  quali- 
ties given  them  the  transcending  char- 
acteristics that  bespeak  the  consideration 
of  art-lovers  everywhere.  Self-coloured 
materials  have  been  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  certain  rugs,  the  wool  or  hair 
having  been  taken  from  animals  that  are 
strongly  marked  by  dark  lines  and  masses 
down  the  back  and  along  the  tail,  so  that 
from  a  single  animal  several  different 
shades  are  obtainable.  The  black  thus 
secured  is  almost  the  only  black  known 
that  is  durable,  as  sooner  or  later  all 
others  corrode  and  eat  the  wool,  so  that 
in  old  carpets  close  examination  will  re- 
veal the  absence  of  pile  where  once  black 
knots  had  been  tied.  In  passing  the  hand 
over  some  rugs  a  slight  difference  in  the 


ft*' 


.** 


DYS8 


COLOURS  AND 

THEIR 
APPLICATION 


46  THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

surface  is  sometimes  apparent,  caused  by  the  action 
of  corrosive  dye  or  strong  mordant  upon  the  wool. 
Many  modern  mordants  consist  of  strong  chemical 
preparations  that  take  from  the  elasticity  and  wearing 
qualities  of  the  wool. 

Experts  will  tell  the  age  of  a  rug  by  noticing'  the 
effect  of  long  exposure  to  the  light.  Certain  colours 
will  change  into  others  much  more  beautiful,  which 
will  remain  permanent  when  the  limit  of  fading  is 
reached.  In  the  preparation  of  dyes  long  exposure  in 
the  sunlight  is  often  required,  and  many  of  the  most 
ancient  secrets  are  being  discovered  by  modern  crafts- 
men, who  by  personal  investigation  are  finding  out 
what  has  revealed  itself  in  turn  to  each  person  who 
has  manipulated  natural  materials.  There  are  certain 
chemical  dyes  that  do  not  fade,  and  some  vegetable 
dyes  that  do  fade,  so  that  an  absolute  line  cannot  be 
drawn  between  them.  One  of  the  best  methods  of 
detecting  the  use  of  aniline  dyes  is  to  separate  the 
pile,  noting  whether  the  wool  is  of  the  same  colour, 
but  of  a  deeper  shade,  near  the  knot,  from  what  it  is 
on  the  surface ;  or  if  it  is  of  an  entirely  different 
colour.  It  may  not  always  hold  true,  but  often 
enough  to  prove  the  rule,  that  vegetable  dyes  fade  to 
lighter  shades  of  their  original  colour,  while  anilines 
fade  to  different  colours,  one  or  another  of  the  dyes 
used  in  combination  entirely  disappearing  at  times, 
and  the  other  remaining.  As,  for  example,  where 
two  colours  are  mixed  to  form  a  third, — like  blue 
and  yellow  to  form  a  green, — the  yellow  may  almost 
disappear,  leaving  a  dull  blue,  which  proves  to  be  per- 
manent  and   sometimes  very   beautiful,   though    pro- 


APPLICATION    OF    COLOUR-DYES    47 

duced  accidentally.  In  modern  Turkish  carpets  we 
often  find  under  a  greyish  yellow  surface  a  deep  crim- 
son, or  beneath  a  pile  of  light  blue,  a  dark  brown 
colour.  When  blue  dyed  with  vegetable  colours 
fades  it  keeps  a  bluish  tint  throughout,  and  crimson 
shows  traces  of  pink,  even  when  it  yields  somewhat 
to  the  power  of  the  sun. 

We  must  learn  to  handle  our  rugs  as  a  botanist 
does  flowers,  and  look  to  them  for  self-revelation, 
which  we  may  confidently  trust  when  we  have  trained 
ourselves  in  intelligent  comprehension.  In  prepara- 
tion for  a  careful  study  of  colour  in  Oriental  rugs,  it 
is  essential  that  we  banish  all  preconceived  notions, 
and  that  we  adopt  a  very  simple  plan  of  procedure, 
elaborating  it  only  as  our  knowledge  increases. 

We  all  possess  a  somewhat  definite  idea  of  the 
three  primary  colours,  red,  blue,  and  yellow.  Accept- 
ing these  as  standards,  in  the  examination  of  each  new 
object  we  ask,  if  the  rug  is  red,  how  red  is  it?  How 
near  the  primary  colour?  A  clear,  absolute  primary 
red  has  not  a  preponderance  of  yellow,  nor  does  it 
hold  too  much  blue.  However  interesting  it  may  be 
for  us  to  learn  about  the  dyes  used  by  rug-makers  to 
produce  the  effects  we  see,  it  is  not  necessary  for  our 
purposes  of  study.  What  we  must  do  is  to  analyse 
what  we  see,  and  define  slight  variations  in  tint,  com- 
paring one  antique  specimen  with  another  until  we 
hold  absolute  conviction  in  regard  to  a  few  of  the 
salient  features  that  manifest  themselves  to  us.  For 
example,  in  the  field  of  this  old  Kulah  rug,  is  the  red 
primary  or  secondary?  Does  it  suggest  yellow  in- 
gredients or  blue?     Is  this   red,  by  comparison   with 


43  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

the  clear  primary  adopted  as  standard,  carmine,  rose- 
madder,  or  crimson? 

This  Khiva  rug,  how  different  the  red  from  that  of 
the  Kulah  !  how  heavy  it  is,  with  blue  and  brown  prop- 
erties !  Comparison  follows  ;  the  red  of  the  Khiva 
is  not  a  clear  primary  red,  nor  is  the  Kulah  any  more 
so,  but  the  red  in  the  Khiva  would  never  be  called  by 
either  of  the  names,  crimson  or  rose,  which  we  unhesi- 
tatingly apply  to  the  Kulah  colouring. 

A  third  specimen  confronts  us,  and,  with  our 
standard  and  the  variants  in  our  minds,  we  assert  that 
the  red  in  this  old  Bokhara  is  of  the  same  nature  as 
that  in  the  Khiva,  while  the  light  pink  in  which  part 
of  its  pattern  is  worked  suggests  the  crimson  of  the 
antique  Kulah. 

Again,  by  comparison  we  note  that  modern  Kulah 
rugs  show  a  decadence  of  colour  scheme,  and  a  pur- 
plish tint  takes  from  the  beauty  of  the  crimson  used 
in  antiques.  Looking  still  further  for  an  example  of 
primary  red  used  by  rug-weavers,  we  find  in  old  Asia 
Minor  rugs,  made  before  the  popularity  of  rose 
shades,  a  so-called  "  Turkey  red  "  which  is  absolute. 
It  is  neither  vermilion  nor  carmine,  nor  is  it  exactly 
like  European  cardinal,  but  is  shown  to  its  fullest 
perfection  in  the  hearth-rugs  that,  under  the  name  of 
"  Smyrna  rugs,"  were  sent  to  Europe  early  in  the  last 
century. 

In  old  Iran  rugs  a  beautiful  blue  is  found  which 
is  as  near  a  full  primary  blue  as  can  be  reached  in 
textiles.  By  comparison  with  it  the  blue  of  certain 
Ghiordes  rugs  is  light,  and  though  indigo  yields  as 
true  a  blue  as  can  be  named,  the  old  Persian  blue  re- 


MUG-FLATE    VIII 


GHIORDEZ  RUG 


MUG-PLATE   VIII 


GHIORDEZ  RUG 

Author's  Description 

TN  this  rare  specimen  of  Anatolian  weaving 
-*■  various  well-known  features  are  evident. 
The  prayer-niche  is  like  those  found  in  antique 
Kulahs  and  in  some  Ladik  specimens.  Primi- 
tive ornament  is  skilfully  handled  in  the  nar- 
row stripes  of  the  border,  while  in  the  broad 
band  is  found  a  rare  rendering  of  the  lily  motif. 
A  well-balanced  cloud-form  occupies  the  cen- 
tral position  in  the  oblong  at  the  top  of  the 
main  central  panel,  while  the  inside  border 
stripe  unites  with  the  lower  oblong  in  such  a 
way  as  to  include  it  as  a  border,  thus  depriving 
it  of  its  customary  character  of  a  lower  oblong 
panel. 


RUCl-PLATK    VIII 


APPLICATION    OF    COLOUR  —  DYES    49 

sembles  more  the  cobalt  blue  of  fine  old  porcelain,  as 
it  has  more  of  a  metallic  than  a  vegetable  quality, 
which  often,  in  old  Shiraz  rugs,  seems  iridescent. 
To  Turkish  red  and  Persian  blue  we  add  the  imperial 
yellow  of  China  as  third  primary,  and,  without  con- 
sideration of  the  secondary  colours  at  present,  we 
may  try  to  form  some  objective  way  of  determin- 
ing where  we  find  the  strictest  adherence  to  primary 
shades  among  rug-weavers.  All  further  discoveries 
will  then  fall  into  line,  and  through  analytical  processes 
we  may  feel  our  way  among  the  woven  flowers  of  the 
Orient. 


CHAPTER   VIII 


LOOMS,   ETC. 


LOOMS,   WARP,   AND   WOOF 

Consideration  of  materials  used  in 
the  making  of  rugs  and  their  colouring 
is  naturally  followed  by  close  study  of 
methods  of  manufacture,  and  examination 
of  the  paraphernalia  of  which  the  weaver 
makes  use.  In  order  to  determine  the 
age  of  a  rug  we  should  know  how  to 
detect  differences  in  the  weave  incident 
to  the  sort  of  loom  that  has  been  em- 
ployed, the  manner  of  tying  the  knots, 
and  the  way  of  using  even  the  most 
primitive  implements.  Much  is  revealed 
in  this  way,  and  we  may  trace  the  nation- 
ality and  sometimes  the  tribe  of  the 
weaver  by  noticing  the  finish  of  the  sides 
of  the  rug,  the  nature  of  its  selvage,  and 
various  other  details.  Shuttles,  bobbins, 
needles,  spindles,  etc.,  made  originally 
from  fish  and  animal  bones  and  shells, 
each  and  all  claim  our  interested  atten- 
tion, and  we  find  that  invention  has  al- 
ways responded  to  necessity. 

Prior  to  the  rearing  of  looms,  the  weav- 
ing of  narrow  fabrics  was  accomplished, 
by  all  peoples  in  early  stages  of  the  art, 


LOOMS,     WARP,     A  M  n~W  (  X  )T 


LIBR  ARY 

STATE  NORMAL  SCH08L 

MANUAL  AST'S   »ND  H-.iME  ECONOMICS 

SANTA  B*R3AR.\,  CALIFORNIA 

M^% 

■*»- 


by  fastening  yarn  threads  together  and  attaching 
them  by  one  end  to  a  hook  or  to  anything  stationary, 
while  the  other  end  was  firmly  tied  to  the  weaver's 
body.  Into  this  simple  webbing  patterns  were  intro- 
duced so  as  correctly  to  join  with  other  pieces,  and 
when  made  into  a  complete  material  the  narrow  weave 
is  not  at  once  noticeable.  All  sorts  of  simple  con- 
trivances antedate  the  making  of  looms  as  we  know 
them,  and  the  trained  eye  looks  for  the  evidences  of 
ancient  craftsmanship  which  we  sometimes  find  mani- 
fested in  the  tapestries  (or  khilims)  of  the  Orient 
even  now. 

In  the  old  days  of  mediaeval  development  of  Orien- 
tal ideas,  after  the  Crusades,  names  were  given  to  the 
then  foreign  ideas  which  were  taught  in  the  convents, 
and  which  became  known  by  Latin  names.  As  side- 
lights on  the  history  and  manufacture  of  rugs,  all  that 
we  can  learn  of  early  methods  is  of  immense  assist- 
ance, for  in  old  embroidery  copy-books  are  sometimes 
found  borders  named  and  described  that  have  been 
taken  directly  from  Oriental  rugs.  Tail-pieces  in  old 
books,  designs  on  coins,  and  the  details  of  many 
other  things  of  contemporary  interest,  while  proving 
the  arts  to  have  been  interdependent,  one  interpreting 
another,  at  the  same  time  enable  us  to  place  styles  of 
weaving  and  pattern  in  a  most  authoritative  way.  In 
the  "  Opus  Pulvinarium,"  or  "  tent-mosaic  "  stitch  we 
constantly  find  Turkish    and    Caucasian  designs,  and 

r-  are  sometimes  surprised   to  discover  in  old  samplers, 
especially  in  such  as  contain  designs  which  have  been 

*3»   appropriated  by  the  Greek  church,  many  Scutari  and 

*:    Asia  Minor  motifs. 


52  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

Looms  may  be,  as  they  ever  have  been,  either  up- 
right or  horizontal.  Thrown  over  the  extended  limb 
of  a  tree  or  upon  an  erected  frame,  the  warp  threads 
are  stretched.  Through  these  the  woof  thread,  wound 
on  a  shuttle,  is  passed  and  forced  tightly  down  into 
place,  and  the  whole  fabric  kept  taut  according  to 
rules  and  ways  that  differ  with  the  individual  work- 
man. In  studying  the  finished  rug  we  learn  to  note 
many  of  these  peculiarities.  We  find  that  in  some 
rugs,  besides  the  simple  finish  on  the  sides,  there  seems 
to  have  been  applied  an  extra  over-and-over  deco- 
ration, sometimes  of  one  colour  but  often  of  several. 
In  other  makes  the  outer  thread  of  the  warp  is  much 
heavier  than  the  others,  and  about  it  a  solid  colour  is 
twisted,  giving  the  effect  of  a  heavy  cord  binding  to 
the  sides  of  the  rug.  Again  a  checker-work  effect  is 
produced  by  alternating  the  colour  of  the  binding 
yarn  with  which  the  side  cords  are  covered.  Some 
weavers  allow  the  webbing  to  extend  in  simple  warp 
and  woof  beyond  the  part  of  the  rug  tied  with  knots, 
and,  as  in  Shiraz  and  Beluchistan  rugs,  into  this  web- 
bing, or  embroidered  upon  it,  patterns  of  a  distinctive 
nature  are  wrought.  The  fringe  of  a  rug  will  some- 
times indicate  the  method  of  its  manufacture,  show- 
ing a  heavy  braided  and  looped  end  which  held  the 
warp  thread  with  great  firmness  upon  the  loom,  or  it 
may  reveal  an  inadequate  and  flimsy  way  of  stretch- 
ing the  warp,  which  is  also  detected  in  the  ruffled  sur- 
face of  the  carpet  itself. 

Modern  ingenuity  and  brain  control  is  helping  the 
Oriental  to  a  knowledge  of  the  latest  and  most  ap- 
proved methods,  and  rugs  are  less  apt  to  be  crooked 


It UG-PLATE  IX 


SHIR  A  Z   RUG 


M  VG-1'LA  TE  IX 


SHIRAZ   RUG 
Loaned  by  Mr.  James  W.  Ellsworth 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

' '  CT^HIS  exceedingly  interesting  and  beautiful 
-*-  specimen  was  probably  made  in  the  eigh- 
teenth-century, and  is  very  lustrous  and  silky. 
The  design  is  well  distributed  in  tree  forms 
throughout  the  field,  and  the  pattern  in  the  web- 
bing which  extends  beyond  the  pile  is  clearly 
and  carefully  wrought.^ 

S.  S.  Costikyan, 


'«5*w*'.Brw*»~ri'  tiVr  .JJJWW^ 


RUG-PI.ATE  IX 


LOOMS,    WARP,    AND    WOOF  53 

than  they  once  were,  though,  with  the  pulling  into 
shape  of  both  ideas  and  warp-threads,  some  of  the 
woven  dreams  of  other  days  are  destined  never  to  be 
reproduced. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  wool  for  weaving,  the 
article  which  has  most  art  significance  is  the  spindle- 
whorl.  Such,  from  earliest  times,  when  they  were 
made  from  natural  objects,  have  been  more  or  less 
elaborately  decorated,  and,  even  though  modern  in- 
vention has  introduced  machine-made  spindles,  the 
designs  on  the  old  have  been  copied  in  textiles,  and 
whorls  and  scrolls  in  design  trace  back  oftentimes 
to  just  such  simple  origin.  Tight  spinning  and  loose 
spinning  may  be  noted  in  the  nature  of  the  twisted 
cotton,  wool,  or  silk  warp-threads,  and  as  we  learn  to 
know  how  the  yarns  were  twisted  we  shall  be  able  to 
locate  weavers  and  determine  their  nationality. 

With  woof-threads  upon  warp  have  been  independ- 
ently invented  by  all  peoples  alike  various  styles  of 
weaving  which  have  given  diagonals,  checks,  and 
fancy  patterns  of  adventition,  and  have,  after  their 
development,  become  regular  designs  copied  in  the 
pile  of  rugs.  Needlework  upon  a  woven  web  makes 
beautiful  many  of  the  fabrics  of  the  Orient,  notably 
Bagdad  stripes,  so-called  camel's-hair  shawls,  and  the 
Sommac  rugs  from  the  back  of  which  hang  the  long 
ends  of  coloured  wools  used  in  the  weaving  and 
decoration.  Nothing,  however,  exists  of  like  beauty 
to  some  of  the  woven  tapestries  which,  from  the 
heavy  woolen  kliilims  of  the  western  and  middle 
Orient  to  the  silk  tissues  of  China  and  Japan,  reign 
supreme  as  the  very  acme  of  perfection  among  loom 


54  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

products.  Much  greater  skill  is  required  to  make 
these  delicate  tissues  of  intricate  pattern  than  is 
needed  in  the  tying  in  of  knots  in  pile  carpets,  though 
the  latter  is  rated  as  a  higher  art. 

Across  Asia  with  almost  magic  power  has  swept  of 
late  years  a  resistless  tide  of  progress  which  has 
threatened  to  put  an  end  to  all  individuality  of  pro- 
duction. Workers  to-day  have,  in  many  places  where 
once  superb  work  was  done,  turned  into  human 
machines,  and,  with  no  interest  in  either  the  folk-lore 
or  habits  of  their  own  people,  show  keen  desire  to 
embrace  Occidental  ideas  and  methods. 


CHAPTER   IX 


THE   KNOT   CARPET 


THE  pile  which  distinguishes  Oriental 
carpets  from  all  others,  is  made  by  tying 
upon  the  warp,  which  has  been  previously 
stretched,  wools  of  various  colours,  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  a  pattern.  This 
is  most  dextrously  done  by  the  deft 
fingers  of  the  Orientals,  with  great  preci- 
sion and  skill,  and  the  knots  are  called 
either  Turkish  or  Persian  according  to 
the  method  of  tying  them. 

For  our  purposes  in  rug-analysis  it  is 
not  so  necessary  to  know  how  these  knots 
are  tied  as  how  they  appear  in  the 
finished  rug.  On  examination  of  the  back 
of  a  rue  we  shall  find  that  each  thread  of 
the  warp  is  encircled  by  the  knot-yarn, 
so  that  there  appears  a  series  of  coloured 
stitches  indicating  the  pattern  which  is 
worked  out  in  knots  on  the  surface  of  the 
rug.  Turning  the  rug  so  that  we  may 
see  the  ends  of  the  knot-yarn  which  form 
the  pile,  we  find  that  in  some  rugs  the 
two  ends  reach  the  surface  together  be- 
tween   every    other    two    warp     threads, 


X%? 


PARAPHERNALIA 


56  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

while  in  other  rugs  a  single  end  comes  from  between 
each  two  of  the  warp  threads.  The  former  of  these  is 
known  as  the  Turkish  or  Ghiordes  knot,  the  latter  as 
the  Persian  or  Sinneh  knot. 

The  difference  is  at  once  evident  upon  investigation, 
and  it  may  readily  be  seen  that  when  the  knots  are  so 
tied  that  one  end  of  the  yarn  stands  up  between  each 
thread  of  the  warp  there  will  be  more  knots  to  the 
square  inch  than  when  two  threads  of  the  warp  are 
included  in  each  tie  of  the  knot.  In  all  properly 
made  Oriental  rugs  the  knot  is  so  securely  tied  that 
it  is  impossible  to  loosen  or  remove  it  by  pulling  the 
ends  of  the  wool  which  form  the  nap  or  raised  sur- 
face. In  this  way  Oriental  weaving  differs  from  the 
attempts  to  copy  the  surface  effect  of  rugs  made  ac- 
cording to  orthodox  methods,  by  drawing  wools  in 
and  out  of  the  warp  without  fastening  them  by  knot- 
ting, so  that  the  wearing  qualities  of  the  fabric  are  not 
to  be  depended  upon.  It  requires  close  examination 
to  discover  the  knot  itself  in  Oriental  rues.  On  the 
back  of  rugs  we  find  the  encircling  threads  of  wool, 
and  on  the  surface  the  design  is  made  of  the  ends  of 
the  yarn,  so  that  we  must  separate  these  ends  in  our 
analysis  and  follow  them  to  the  warp,  where  we  find 
the  knots.  In  vast  numbers  of  old  rugs  the  pile  has 
worn  off  so  as  to  expose  the  knots  themselves,  which 
are  so  mosaic-like  in  character  as  to  give  name  to  a 
style.  Some  collections  consist  wholly  of  such  an- 
tiques, and  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  reproduce 
their  surfaces.  However  close  the  modern  worker  may 
cut  the  wools,  and  even  burn  away  the  ends  with  acids, 
the  effect   is  unsatisfactory,  and  the  attempt  at  decep- 


HAM  AD  AN  HUG 
Loaned  by  Tiffany  Studios 


OOK 

nes  from  between 

{  these  is 

>t,  the  latter  as 

n  investigation, 

knots  are  so 

1  stands  up  between  each 

1   be  more  knots  to  the 

threads  of  the  warp  are 

knot.     In    all   properly 

o  securely  tied  that 


ng  the 

a  sur- 

&ovbv5Y<\  \smV^iT  \stf  fowjoi  ,  f,-orn  the 

— — ~- —      e  ac- 

?ols  in 

t  fastening  y  knot- 

.aalities  ol  ic  are  not 

It  r  examination 

al  rugs.     On  the 

back  of  ru  threads  of  wool, 

of  the  ends  of 

te  these  ends  in  our 

the  warp,  where  we  find 

of  old  the  pile  has 

-  expose  the  Ives,  which 

iaract<  •   name  to  a 

of  such  an- 

-ible  to    reproduce 

r  close  the  i  er  may 

■  ay  the  ith  acids, 

.nd  tin  decep- 


THE    KNOT    CARPET  57 

tion  is  easily  detected.      Only   age  itself  will  produce 
the  "mosaic  style"  so  much  coveted  by  connoisseurs. 
Like   beads    upon   a  rosary,  the  knots  seem  to  be 
strung,  when  an  accidental  ravelling  gives  us  oppor- 
tunity closely  to  examine  the  component  parts  of  a  rug, 
and  a  very  good  way  of  determining  the  claim  of  warp 
and  woof  to  great  age  is  to  draw  out  a  woof  thread 
from   any    part  of    the    rug  and    note    how   difficult 
it  is  to  straighten   it.       After  days    and    weeks  soak- 
ing in  water,  or  even  in  prepared  liquid,  the  kink  still 
remains.     It  is  true  that  some  well-woven  modern  rugs 
may  be   thus    tested,    and  the  length  of  time  taken  to 
straighten  the  woof-thread  may  be  almost  as  great  as 
that  needed  by  the  antique  ;   but  in  a  great  number  of 
specimens  examined  the  result  has  been  surprisingly 
convincing  when  other  claims  to  antiquity  have  failed. 
In    fact,  without  seeing  the  rugs  themselves,  one  be- 
comes expert  in  discovering  qualities  and  peculiarities 
of  these  woof  threads  which  at  first  might  strike  one 
as  being  of  the  least  importance  of  the  three  distinct 
parts  of    all  pile    carpets,  the    warp,  woof,  and  knot. 
Fraud    and    a    desire    to    lessen     expense    have    led 
workers    to    introduce    into    the    woof,    which    holds 
in     place    the    knots     after    they     have    been    tied, 
strands    of    cheaper   materials    than    those    used    in 
the   rest  of  the   rug.     Threads    of    cotton    are    some- 
times wound  about  by  a  thread  or  more  of  wool,  and 
when   the  habits  of  weavers   are   learned   these   tricks 
are  easily  placed.     Without  woof  threads  there  would 
be  no  weaving,  and  as  both  warp  and  knots  frankly 
confess    to    the    casual    observer    what    they  are,  less 
attempt    is    made    to  introduce  cheaper  materials  in 


58  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

them.  Heavy  woof  threads  give  weight  and  body 
to  many  beautiful  fabrics,  but  it  is  when  the  woof 
threads  are  of  good  quality  and  extreme  fineness  that 
we  find  the  most  flexible  results  in  the  finished  rugs. 
Prominence  is  sometimes  given  to  fabrics  by  the 
introduction  of  metal.  Upon  a  silk  warp  gold  woof 
threads  are  woven,  making  a  solid  gold  background 
for  the  knots  of  the  pattern,  which  stands  out  in  relief. 
Rarely  beautiful  is  such  unusual  effect,  and  as  temple- 
hanging  or  votive  offering  the  creation  is  unsurpassed. 
There  will  always  be  counterclaims  made  by  en- 
thusiasts for  the  greater  ancestry  of  methods  and 
designs.  For  many  years  Egyptologists  argued  with 
the  lovers  of  Persian  art  for  the  supremacy  of  motifs 
of  ornament,  as  well  as  of  processes  of  manufacture. 
The  home  of  the  knot  carpet  has  been  a  matter  of 
discussion,  and,  without  lingering  over  any  arguments 
for  or  against  rival  claims,  we  may  safely  assert  that  in 
Persia  the  fullest  development  of  the  art  was  reached, 
and  from  Persia  the  greatest  inspiration  was  derived 
and  carried  East  and  West  wherever  the  Oriental 
loom  has  been  erected.  Within  half  a  century  the 
claims  of  China  to  priority  in  many  art  motifs  and  in- 
ventions have  for  the  first  time  been  severally  consid- 
ered, and  much  that  was  once  ceded  to  Persia  and 
India  has  been  traced  to  China.  Comparisons  are 
now  made  between  Persian  and  Chinese  motifs  of 
ornament  that  suggest  similar  former  discussions  be- 
tween things  Persian  and  things  Egyptian. 


RUG-PLATE  X 


SHIRAZ  RUG 


BUG-PLATE  X 


"A 


SHIRAZ  RUG 

Size:  7.10  X  5.1 

Loaned  by  Mr.  James  W.  Ellsworth 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 
RUG  bearing  evidence  of  Kirman  influence 
upon  Shiraz  weaving."" 

S.  S.  Costikyan. 

Author's  Description 

The  outer  border  stripe  of  this  beautiful  rug 
is  distinctively  Kirman  in  style,  as  is  the 
strangely  conventionalized  bird  design  in  the 
broad  band,  in  which  four  birds  with  bills 
touching  are  so  arranged,  with  light  and  dark 
bodies  alternating,  as  completely  to  disguise 
their  forms  and  to  make  a  pattern  of  unusual 
interest. 

The  small  floral  forms  scattered  over  the  field 
of  the  rug  change  in  colour  from  time  to  time  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  the  background  appear 
different  in  one  place  from  what  it  is  in  another. 
Such  is  not  the  case,  however;  but  the  magic 
weaving  defies  analysis,  and  charms  simply  by 
its  beauty  and  reposeful  disposition  of  colours 
and  tints.  The  fabric  has  a  gem-like  quality 
which  adds  depth  and  value  to  the  softness  of 
the  materials.  A  most  interesting  inscription 
is  obscurely  wrought  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
border  in  the  outer  stripe,  which  testifies  to  the 
intention  of  the  weaver  to  make  as  perfect  a 
fabric  as  possible,  and  to  the  fact  that  he  came 
originally  from  Kirman. 

The  age  of  the  rug  is  reckoned  to  be  almost 
tivo  hundred  years.  It  is,  however,  in  a  state  of 
perfect  preservation,  and  has  about  it  a  quality 
that  suggests  its  ability  to  render  many  more 
years  of  satisfactory  service  as  a  household 
treasure. 


RUG- PLAT K.   X 


CHAPTER  X 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   THE   RUG 

In  presenting  the  chart  method  of  studying  Orien- 
tal rugs  it  is  with  the  firm  belief  that  by  thus  syste- 
matizing and  arranging  facts  the  mind  is  equipped 
with  data  and  the  eye  is  trained  to  see.  It  would, 
however,  be  detrimental  to  all  progress  to  overburden 
the  memory,  and  therefore  we  should  proceed  most 
cautiously  as  we  advance  from  general  to  special  con- 
siderations. 

The  field  of  the  rug-chart    and  the  columns   that 
bound  it  on  the  right  and  on  the  left  are  now  distinctly 


T 

U 

K 
I 
s 

H 


C 
A 
U 

c 

A 
S 
I 

A 

N 


? 
E 

7? 

I 
A 

N 


T 
U 

"R 

e 

o 

M 
A 

U 


7~\ 


i 

H 
D 
I 
A 


6o  THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

impressed  upon  our  minds,  and  we  may  demand 
from  each  new  specimen  that  we  handle  a  response  in 
itself  to  our  questioning  in  regard  to  the  materials 
and  colours  used,  methods  of  manufacture,  the  original 
use,  if  any  is  indicated  by  the  shape  and  size  of  the 
rug,  and  what  are  the  differences  and  similarities  in 
weave  and  finish. 

We  are  thus  legitimately  led  to  a  desire  to  locate 
the  rug-weavers  through  whose  handiwork  we  have 
arrived  at  various  conclusions  which  we  desire  to 
prove  ;  for  as  we  are  studying  objects  analytically, 
questions  are  forced  upon  us  by  our  own  discoveries. 
We  note,  without  being  told,  that  there  seem  to  be  a 
few  marked  varieties  in  rug  productions,  and  that  all 
the  rugs  we  examine  are  more  or  less  like  one  or  the 
other  of  these  styles. 

A  glance  at  the  bottom  of  the  rug  chart  will  show 
five  divisions  which  are  the  broadest  and  most  com- 
prehensive possible,  and  one  will  progress  much  faster 
who  is  willing  to  make  no  effort  at  subdivision  until 
later. 

The  Orient,  for  our  purposes,  is  to  be  considered 
only  in  the  light  of  its  art,  and  an  outline  map  will 
show  the  natural  divisions — lakes,  rivers,  and  mountain 
ranges — that  have  at  different  periods  been  the  cen- 
tres of  first  one  and  then  another  great  epoch-making 
civilization  and  art  influence.  Each  student  should 
fill  in  an  outline  map  as  individual  research  makes  it 
possible,  and  it  is  most  desirable  that  we  should  become 
familiar  with  the  changes  in  boundaries  and  in  styles 
brought  about  by  great  world  movements. 

In  order  to  do  this,  let  us  look  first  at  an  outline 


I 


GEOGRAPHY     OF    THE     RUG 


61 


map  and  note  the  physical  aspect  of  the  country,  the 
same  now  as  it  was  before  the  migratory  tribes  made 
tent  homes  for  themselves.  The  prevalence  of  hills 
and  mountain  ranges  will  suggest  the  influence  upon 
native  industries  of  high  altitudes  where  the  wild 
goats  roam,  and  we  know  that  the  sheltered  valleys 


~77/£ComAN 


OUTLINE  MAP  SHOWING  FIVE  DIVISIONS  OF    RUG-PRODUCING    COUNTRY. 

hidden  away  among  the  hills  must  protect  both 
people  and  flocks  from  outside  influence  and  foster 
traditional  methods.  In  desert  places  we  must  look 
for  oases  which  in  caravan  routes  have  been  trading- 
posts  from  time  immemorial.     Seas  and  lakes,  like  the 


62  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

great  rivers,  have  known  many  dwellers  beside  them 
who  have  through  the  ages  developed  these  natural 
resources  for  their  own  purposes. 

Using  various  of  these  land  and  water  peculiarities 
we  may  bound  our  five  broad  divisions  as  we  name 
them.  The  first,  encircled  on  the  west  by  the  Medi- 
terranean and  Black  seas,  we  shall  separate  from  the 
rest  of  the  Orient  by  "  the  great  river  Euphrates,"  and 
call  this  part  of  the  country,  in  our  classification 
"Turkish."  In  the  district  between  the  Black  and 
Caspian  seas  we  locate  the  provinces  that  we  call 
"  Caucasian,"  and  between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the 
Persian  Gulf  we  have  the  most  important  centre  in  the 
history  of  rug-weaving, — the  third  or  "  Persian  "  divi- 
sion. North  of  this,  and  east  of  the  Aral  Sea,  we  find 
the  Khiva  desert  and  the  fourth  or  "Turkoman  "  divi- 
sion, leaving  the  peninsula  of  India  to  mark  the  fifth 
or  "  Indian  "  division. 

Upon  the  outline  map  we  may  draw  the  lines  that 
bound  our  division,  and  then  consult  an  atlas  for 
details  that  will  enable  us  to  see  what  modern  nation- 
alities, provinces,  and  cities  we  have  enclosed,  and 
later,  as  our  study  proceeds,  we  may  fill  in  all  that  we 
conscientiously  deem  we  have  made  our  own. 

These  broad  divisions  distinctly  mark  as  many 
styles,  which,  in  their  purity,  may  be  called  by  the 
five  names  already  given, — Turkish,  Caucasian,  Per- 
sian, Turcoman,  and  Indian  ;  and  in  these  are  found 
the  peculiar  characteristics  that  have  already. attracted 
our  notice,  so  that  almost  without  our  volition  we 
have  been  forced  to  recognize  them.  That  style  in 
which  the  unit  of  ornament  seems  to  be  of  paramount 


GEOGRAPHY     OF    THE    RUG 


63 


importance  we  find  in  the  Turkish  division.  Geomet- 
ric design  marks  the  second,  or  Caucasian,  and  dis- 
tinctly floral  ornament  the  Persian  division,  while  the 
octagon  and  medallion  are  most  elaborately  worked 
out  in  the  fourth,  or  Turcoman,  and  the  fifth  or 
Indian    division    gives    itself    most    lavishly    to    tiny 


f 


Turcoman 


town 


4»     AfaHANlSTAN 


itf'i- 


OUTLINE  MAP  FILLED  IN  FROM  MEMORY. 

details  in  the  elaboration  of  even  the  large  structural 
patterns  that  cover  great  spaces  with  minute  tracery. 
By  way  of  further  describing  these  styles  we  may 
use  for  illustration  of  the  first  division  any  old  Turkish 
rug  which  shows  in  repetition  all  over  the  upper  part 


64  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

of  the  rug,  above  the  prayer  disc,  one  single  motif 
symmetrically  arranged  in  both  border  and  in  field 
ornamentation,  for  this  adherence  to  the  principle  of 
the  unit  in  design,  although  not  universal,  is  sufficient 
to  force  itself  upon  our  notice. 

On  handling  another  rug  of  somewhat  different  char- 
acter we  notice  the  prevalence  of  geometric  designs, 
skilfully  conceived  and  elaborately  worked  out,  which 
have  a  vigour  and  strength  about  them  and  show 
"  adherence  to  tribal  purity"  in  border  patterns,  etc. 
These  primitive  designs  group  themselves  under  our 
second  division.  This  in  turn  leads  us  to  note  that 
both  the  already  specified  styles  seem  to  be  influenced 
at  times  by  another  quite  as  distinct  as  they,  which 
has  floral  characteristics  about  it,  although  it  adheres 
in  the  main  to  geometric  divisions.  We  are  thus  led 
up  through  this  subdivision  to  the  separate  variety 
which  is  absolutely  floral  without  geometric  sugges- 
tion even.  Long,  flowing,  undulating,  finished  curves 
indicate  vines,  growing  plants,  and  trailing  creepers, 
which  carry  us  into  the  third  division  made  for  our 
convenience  through  our  own  observation. 

The  fourth  or  Turcoman,  division  seems  to  control 
all  medallion  and  octagon  designs,  although  we 
find  indications  of  such  forms  in  some  of  the  classes 
already  noticed.  This  makes  it  difficult  to  decide 
into  which  of  the  four  divisions  we  may  place 
those  specimens  in  which  the  designs  show  a  depar- 
ture from  purity  and  tradition. 

Lastly  we  find  it  necessary  to  make  a  fifth  division 
for  certain  rugs  which  seem  nondescript,  at  times 
combining  many  of  the  features  we  have  learned  to 


BUG- PLA TE  XI 


ASIA  MINOR  RUG 


BUG-PLATE  XI 


ASIA  MINOR  RUG 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

"   /I ^  Anatolian  rug  of  the  early  part  of  the 
■^■*-     eighteenth-century.'''' 

S.  S.  Costikyan. 

Author's  Description 

The  Rhodian  lily  design  is  well  illustrated  in 
the  broad  border  of  this  antique  Asia  Minor 
rug,  in  which  are  such  a  combination  of  styles 
that  it  would  hardly  be  possible  to  classify  the 
specimen  less  broadly  than  as  a  product  of 
Anatolia.  The  Rhodian  motif  is  handled  with 
greater  fidelity  in  this  rug  than  is  usual,  and 
it  shows  to  perfection  the  make-up  of  the  alter- 
nate figure  in  the  main  border  stripe  which  in 
early  weavings  was  a  geometric  star,  but 
which  has  been  softened  into  a  floral  form  in 
this  rug. 

In  the  serrated  design  which  bands  the  prayer- 
niche  is  seen  the  water  motifs  surmounted  by 
the  wave  crest,  which  was  often  rendered  sym- 
bolically in  early  Ladik  rugs,  but  which  has 
passed  into  accepted  design  by  Kidah  weavers. 
The  intimate  association  of  water  with  worship, 
as  ordered  by  the  Koran,  forced  this  design 
upon  the  enthusiastic  Mohammedans. 


GEOGRAPHY     OF    THE     RUG  65 

recognize,    but    oftener    showing    new  thoughts    and 
methods.     This  fifth  division  we  call  Indian. 

If  only  we  can  content  ourselves  right  here  with 
apparently  slow  progress,  by  making  a  close  examina- 
tion of  these  main  features  in  rugs  in  which  they  are 
distinct  and  evident,  we  shall  be  ready  to  study  care- 
fully the  designs  with  which,  in  spite  of  ourselves,  we 
have  become  familiar.  We  shall  find  much  side  light 
thrown  upon  our  task  by  observing  all  sorts  of  other 
art  manifestations  in  metal,  porcelain,  wood,  etc.,  for 
purposes  of  comparison,  which  will  reveal  to  us  the 
mental  attitude  of  the  Oriental  craftsman  toward  the 
decoration  of  whatever  object  he  was  beautifying. 


CHAPTER  XI 

RELIGION 

Of  the  religious  beliefs  which  have  most  effectually 
influenced  pattern,  those  that  led  to  nature-worship 
were  necessarily  the  earliest,  the  sources  of  life  being 
most  profoundly  reverenced.  These  early  beliefs  left 
legacies  to  the  weavers  among  the  ancients,  and  Art 
owes  to  them  a  debt  she  cannot  often  enough  acknowl- 
ledge.  In  approaching  this  most  absorbingly  inter- 
esting subject,  we  can  touch  only  lightly  upon  it, 
gleaning  such  information  as  will  materially  assist 
us  in  a  general  comprehension  of  the  thought-life  of 
the  people  of  the  Orient,  that  we  may  understand 
their  allusions  and  symbols. 

During  the  development  of  the  chaotic  conditions 
in  which  were  the  elements  of  later  religions,  the 
observations  and  reflections  of  man  were  more  or  less 
independent  and  largely  indicative  of  reverence  for 
one  supreme  God.  When  teachers  arose,  on  through 
the  centuries,  who  purported  to  be  the  embodiment 
of  Deity  or  His  special  prophets  or  messengers,  their 
names  were  given  to  their  systems  of  worship,  and 
they  have  figured  in  history  as  founders  of  the  great 
religions.  Those  beliefs  which  have  most  effectually 
influenced  pattern  are  indicated  in  the  six-pointed  star 
in  the    rug   chart,    and    through   these  we  may  trace 


RELIGION 


67 


back  to  the  mythological  naturalism  which  gave  them 
birth. 

Buddhism    began  its  eastern    journeying  from  the 


STAR  SHOWING  SIX  RELIGIONS. 

plains  of  India  over  two  thousand  years  ago,  and  to 
day  its  vitality  and  strength  are  shown  in  art  objects 
which  in  China  and    Japan,  Thibet  and    Burma,  are 


6S  THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

as  true  to  type  as  they  ever  were.  Much  of  the  orna- 
ment that  has  been  claimed  as  belonging  to  other 
religions  is  used  by  Buddhists  to-day  as  it  has  been 
through  the  centuries;  and,  leaving  to  ethnologists 
the  question  of  origin  of  symbols,  it  is  quite  possible 
in  many  cases  to  discover  and  verify  the  absolute. 

We  find  that  Buddhism  indulges  in  an  over-abun- 
dance of  ornament,  which  may  be  the  result  of  the 
dignity  given  to  all  life — in  plant  and  animal  as  well 
as  in  human  form — as  the  possible  residence  of  the 
soul  in  transmigration.  No  smallest  detail  is  omitted 
in  depicting  things  of  the  earth,  which  in  their  materi- 
ality furnish  symbols  and  suggest  eternal  truths. 

In  our  modern  homes  to-day  we  find,  far  distant 
from  the  land  of  its  birth,  design  that  is  absolutely 
Buddhistic  and  which  definitely  suggests  one  or  another 
of  the  acknowledged  motifs  of  Chinese  Buddhist  orna- 
ment, among  which  the  eight  emblems  : — the  wheel  of 
the  law,  the  lotus,  the  knot  of  destiny,  the  twin-fish, 
the  canopy,  the  urn,  the  umbrella,  and  the  basket  of 
flowers,  with  the  trisula  and  swastika,  most  frequently 
occur. 

We  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  question  that  most 
concerns  us  now  is  not  how  best  we  can  study  Buddhism 
or  any  other  of  the  religions  that  have  most  definitely 
influenced  the  history  of  art,  but  how  we  may  learn 
to  detect  the  earmarks  of  each  in  the  handling  of 
objects  to-day.  Exhaustive  analytical  work  can  be 
accomplished  only  by  the  profound  student,  but  there 
is  much  that  is  definite  enough  to  be  taught  in  a  mere 
primer  of  ornament,  and  there  are  a  few  forms  that 
should    be  attributed    to  Buddhism  more  often  than 


JAPANESE    ART    OBJECTS 
(Shinto)  (Buddhist! 


RELIGION  69 

they  are.  Among  these  the  lotus  medallion  which 
appears  in  old  Persian  rugs  is  of  paramount  import- 
ance. We  find  it  in  the  rugs  of  Kirman  and  Ispahan, 
whither  it  has  drifted  from  the  far  East,  differing  from 
the  "pomegranate  medallion,"  which  is  largely  phallic 
in  its  suggestion,  and  from  the  ordinary  rosettes  based 
on  the  "Assyrian  daisy"  and  the  "  Star  of  Bethlehem" 
which  appear  in  outline  in  old  Persian  and  Turkish 
ornament. 

Mongolian  Buddhism  favoured  the  use  of  this  lotus 
medallion,  and  in  many  old  fabrics  we  find  that  the 
eight  attitudes  of  Buddha  have  been  converted  into 
something  more  readily  understood  by  the  weavers, 
who,  when  originally  studying  the  petals  in  each  of 
which  Buddha  is  represented,  imagined  each  figure 
to  belong  to  the  flower  form  at  its  base,  and  so  por- 
trayed it.  Buddhist  art  in  Thibet  has  given  to 
the  products  of  the  northeastern  looms  of  Asia  the 
"square  cross"  and  the  "  dordje"  so  often  found  in  Tur- 
coman rugs  with  many  other  features  which  we  shall 
group  when  studying  later  the  fabrics  of  well-known 
localities.  Buddhism  in  its  purity  cannot  be  studied 
in  India  to-day,  but  the  lasting  influence  of  its  teach- 
ing is  felt  in  much  that  is  claimed  to  be  strictly 
Mohammedan,  and,  joining  forces  with  that  second 
great  art  power  in  the  Orient,  ornament  became  so 
mongrel  a  thing  in  India  that  it  is  difficult  to  separate 
it  into  its  component  parts  or  to  make  definite  claims 
for  it.  Recognizing,  then,  in  some  modern  pattern, 
no  matter  who  wove  the  fabric,  an  indication  of  Bud- 
dhist thought,  we  may  reach  back  through  it  to  p re- 
Buddhist  times,  and  to  the  early  and  natural  religions 
of  all  eastern  Asia. 


7o  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

In  both  China  and  Japan  the  national  religion  still 
makes  use  of  art  objects  that  may  be  distinguished 
from  those  that  have  been  borrowed  from  other  relig- 
ions, and,  while  it  is  not  too  late,  such  should  be 
grouped  in  museums  to  assist  students  in  their  efforts 
to  demonstrate  truth.  Buddhism,  wherever  it  has 
travelled,  has  baptised  native  gods  with  Buddhist 
names,  and  has  accounted  for  them  as  former  or  later 
incarnations  of  Buddha,  or  of  Buddhist  saints.  Now 
that  commercialism  is  inspiring  native  workers  to 
make  use  of  new  patterns,  they  are  everywhere  com- 
bining new  with  old  material,  and  great  confusion 
naturally  ensues. 

The  art  of  Japan  floats  like  a  flower  on  the  sea  of 
Chinese  thought,  and  Buddhism,  with  its  wealth  of 
ornament,  finds  its  most  poetic  expression  in  that 
country  in  contrast  to  the  early  religion  (Shintoism,  or 
the  worship  of  spirits),  whose  emblems  are  of  the  sim- 
plest nature.  They  are,  however,  perpetuated,  and  may 
always  be  distinguished  from  things  Buddhist  when 
the  principles  of  Shintoism  are  comprehended.  Much 
of  the  art  of  Japan  and  China  is  based  on  idol  and 
demon  worship.  The  elements  are  personified  by 
gods  who  are  supposed  to  preside  over  them  ;'  such, 
with  their  attributes  and  emblems,  adding  immensely 
to  the  wealth  of  Mongolian  ornament.  We  find,  for 
example,  that  the  thunder-god  of  Japan  is  portrayed 
as  possessing  numberless  drums  ornamented  with  the 
sign  known  as  the  tomoyc,  which  owes  its  origin  to 
some  long-ago  conception  of  elemental  forces,  but 
which  has  been  adopted  by  Corea  and  Japan  as  a 
national  and  heraldic  crest.     As  such  we  meet   it  in 


IMAGE  OF   BUDDHA   AND   BUDDHIST  ART  OBJECTS 


RELIGION  71 

our  analytical  study,  and  through  it  we  find  our  way 
into  the  consideration  of  the  many  discussions  about  it. 
Without  doubt,  among  other  things  it  refers  to  ele- 
mental conditions  and,  like  the  tae-kieh  of  China,  it  is 
universally  respected  by  scholars  and  philosophers  to 
whose  erudition  we  owe  our  still  limited  knowledge 
of  the  religions  of  the  past.  Use  is  made  in  China 
and  Japan  of  flower  and  plant  emblems  to  repre- 
sent things  desirable  in  human  life, — longevity,  wealth, 
happiness,  etc. ;  and  the  bamboo,  peach,  and  pome- 
granate vie  with  each  other  for  supremacy  in  the 
furnishing  of  art  motifs. 

Granting  a  priority  of  about  a  thousand  years  to 
Buddhism  and  Buddhist  art,  we  must  acknowledge 
that  Mohammedanism,  with  its  determination  to  tra- 
vel with  the  message  of  the  Prophet  wherever  the 
human  foot  had  already  trod,  made  in  a  short  time  a 
record  for  itself  that  rivalled  all  others  in  the  estab- 
lishing of  a  characteristic  school  of  ornament,  though 
inspiration  was  drawn  from  every  obtainable  source, 
and  all  that  had  prevailed  before  it  was  made  subject 
to  it.  So  rapid,  complete,  and  lasting  has  been  the 
march  of  this  conquering  power,  that  great  confusion 
exists  in  the  minds  of  those  who  have  not  considered 
the  original  sources  of  ornament  adopted  by  Moham- 
medanism. There  remains  a  great  work  to  do,  and 
volumes  might  be  written  full  of  explanations  and 
considerations  that  would  materially  help  such  study. 
Our  claim  for  Oriental  rugs  is  that  they  are  silent 
witnesses  which  are  patiently  awaiting  our  recognition, 
and  which  we  shall  be  able  to  interpret  when  we  have 
thoroughly  learned  the  language  of  art.     Half-know- 


72 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


ledge  bids  fair  to  defeat  all  honest  effort   to  arrive  at 
absolute  truth  ;  and  to  escape  from  the  dangers  which 

beset  our  path,  we  must  pre- 
pare our  minds  to  be  respon- 
sive to  that  which  speaks  to  us 
in  the  ornament  we  are  study- 
ing, rather  than  seek  responses 
to  our  own  thought  and  pre- 
conceived opinions. 

Mohammedanism,    the 
religion    of    the    Arab,     shares 

JEWISH    MARRIAGF.-I.ANTERN        _    ^ 

(Showing  six-pointed  star  known  with  Christianity  a    Hebrew 

commonly  in    ornament  as  either 

the  " shield  of  David"  or  ^ancestry,  and  all  the  great  ac- 

"  Signet  of  Solomon.  ')  J  ° 

cumulation  of  Talmudic  and  Cabalistic  imagery  has 
served  Islam  as  a  foundation  for  a  fanciful  and  far- 
reaching  system  of  ornament  which 
has  freely  adopted  the  t  a  1  i  s  m  a  n  i  c 
"  shield  of  David  "  and  the  "  signet  of 
Solomon,"  with  other  equally  signi- 
ficant features  all  its  own.  These  have 
been  transplanted  Eastland  West, 
where,  irrespective  of  their  origin,  they 
have  been  given  names  under  which 
they  have  appeared  in  art,  so  that  it  is 
necessary  to  look  back  to  pre-Moham- 
medan  days  for  the  national  religions. 
Thus  fabric  made  in  Persia  may  be 
strictly  speaking  "  Persian  "  and  yet 
be  wholly  Arabic  or  "  Mohammedan," 
while  among  nomadic  tribes  in  Persia 
we  may  find  single  elements  which  suggest  ancient 
beliefs.     Within  the  past  half-century,  exploration  and 


JEWISH  ORNA- 
MENT. 
(Lotus-Jlo-wer,    Six- 
pointed  star,   and 
Water-Motif.) 


RELIGION  73 

scientific  investigation  and  study  have  proved  beyond 
all  speculation  that  certain  of  the  little-understood 
geometric  forms  had  special  reference  to  past  con- 
ceptions of  natural  phenomena,  and,  as  the  migration 
of  symbols  is  successfully  traced,  the  borrowed  arts 
may  be  compared  with  those  of  independent  origin. 

The  arts  and  sciences  are  interdependent.  For  ex- 
ample the  student  of  languages,  who  traces  back 
through  all  cursive  forms,  like  the  modern  Persian  or 
Arabic,  to  the  rectangular  period  before  curves  were 
adopted,  may  illustrate  with  designs  in  woven  fabrics 
the  truth  he  is  endeavouring  to  establish.  Such  a 
discovery,  though  without  intent,  throws  light  on  the 
subject  of  ornament,  and  is  often  more  convincing 
than  that  chosen  to  illustrate  a  pet  conception  of  the 
student  of  art. 

The  textile  art  owes  more  to  Mohammedanism  than 
to  any  other  religion  ;  and  eastward  far  into  Mongolia, 
and  across  the  northern  coast  of  Africa  to  Spain  in  the 
west,  its  progress  has  described  its  emblem,  the  Cres- 
cent, and  its  arabesques  have  mingled  Saracenic  with 
native  art  motifs  everywhere.  This  statement  cannot 
be  too  forcibly  impressed  upon  the  student,  who  finds 
it  easy  to  recognize  marks  of  the  living  religion,  and 
is  in  danger  of  overlooking  much  that  the  grasping 
power  of  Islam  has  wrested  from  native  folk-lore  and 
primitive  thought. 

Another  aspect  of  the  situation  forces  upon  us  the 
recognition  of  an  independent  style  which  developed 
in  the  conquered  countries  to  which  the  Mohamme- 
dans carried  new  ideas.  This  is  often  called  "  Mon- 
grel "  but  is  so  definite  that  periods  may  almost  always 


74 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


O  A  «* 


be  assigned  to  it,  and  results  are  easily  traced  to  it. 

For  example,  the   Arabs   carrying    the    knowledge   of 

mathematics  into  Persia,  the  land 
>?  /uxh.  ^^  °^  dreams  and  mysticism,  awaken- 
ed smouldering  fires  upon  long- 
neglected  altars,  for  from 
''  Ur  of  the  Chaldees"  Abram 
had  wandered  westward 
centuries  before,  carrying  with 
him  in  incipient  condition  much 
that  in  a  highly  developed  state 
returned  with  the  Mohammedan 
to  the  land  between  the  great 
rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 
The  speculative  tendency  in  the 
thought-life  of  the  Persians 
immediately  seized  upon  these 
mathematical  suggestions,  and 
their  interpretation  brought 
about  a  renaissance  of  their  own 
past,  so  that  the  purely  Persian 
held  its  own  even  in  its  assimila- 
tion of  foreign  elements,  and 
through  that  mediaeval  period  in 
the  history  of  Iranian  art  we  find 
our  way  back  to  Zoroastrianism 
and  Magdaism. 

Christianity  has  influenced  the 
ornament    of   Asia  less  than  any 

ANCIENT  FORMS  OF    FIRE- 
ALTARS  copied  in  design,  other  religion ,  and  still  some  re- 
ference to  it  should  be  made  in  the  study  of  ornament 
in  textiles,  for  a  very  definite  use  of  Christian  symbols 


0 


] 

r  i 

a 

ODD 


o 

H 

Z 

X 

en 
H 


w 

W 
Z 

a, 
< 


RELIGION 


75 


has  been  developed  by  the  Nestorian  and  Greek 
Churches ;  and  northward  and  eastward  along  the 
Black  Sea,  and  westward  into  Europe,  we  may  trace 
the  wanderings  of  Semitic  tribes  who  have  adopted 
Christian  symbols  and  introduced  them  with  their 
own  tribal  patterns  into  their  woven  fabrics.  All 
along  the  western  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  the  textile 
art  shows  great  similarity  in  the  ornament  it  has 
adopted,  and  in  famous  Greek  monasteries  the  indis- 
criminate use  of  patterns  has  caused  the  widespread 
distribution  of  mixed  designs,  which  in  Bulgaria, 
Roumania,  and  along  the  Danube,  have  been  adopted 
and  conveyed  to  places  far  inland,  where  the  same 
motifs  may  be  found  as  those  used  in  Scutari  and  in 
Turkish  possessions  along  the  southern  shores  of  the 
Black  Sea. 

This  transcontinental  migration  carried  into  Poland 
and  northern  Europe  many  ideas  which  were  fostered 
and  developed  by  patrons  there  of  the  textile  art,  who 


FIRE-TWIGS  USED  IN  ANCIENT  WORSHIP. 

transferred  looms,  weavers,  and  patterns  overland  from 
the  Orient.  Costly  fabrics  were  woven,  and  certain 
motifs  were  so  often  used  that  Norse  and  Polish 
names  have  been  often  erroneously  given  to  patterns 
that  had  their  birth  in  Anatolia  the  "  land  of  the  sun- 
rise," between  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas. 

The  methods  of  prayer  which  have  been  developed 
in    these  various    religions,    have     definitely    marked 


76 


THE   ORIENTAL   RUG   BOOK 


design.  From  the  fire-altar  of  the  Zoroastrians  to  the 
tallest  minaret  of  the  Moslems;  from  the  prayer- 
wheels  of  Thibet  to    the  gohei   of    Japan  ;   from   the 


STAND    FOR    HOLDING    FIRE-TWIGS, 
WHICH,  IN  MODIFIED  FORMS, 
ANCIENT   FIRE-ALTAR.  IS  SHOWN  IN    DESIGN. 

prostrations  of  Hindu  idol-worshippers  to  the  calm 
lotus-seated  Buddhist  saint,  from  the  clappers  in  Chi- 
nese temples  to  the  bells  of  Christianity,  ornament  has 
developed  under  the  fostering  influence  of  human 
need  and  thought. 

No  more  interesting  study  engages  the  attention  of 
mortal  man  than  that  which  shows  how  each  age  in 
turn  finds  its  own  way  of  calling  for  Divine  power, 
prayer-rugs,  prayer-wheels,  and  rosaries  each  and  all 
testifying  to  man's  desire  to  obtain  the  gifts  of  the 
gods. 


CHAPTER  XII 

MIGRATION  OF  PATTERN 

Before  the  migration  of  patterns  one  might  trace 
the  origin  of  fabrics  by  reading  their  ornamentation 
and  noting  the  designs  or  ideographs  used  to  depict 
the  thought  of  the  craftsman  or  art-worker.  Now  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  find  pure  designs,  so  crossed  are 
some  motifs  by  certain  others.  Wars  and  pilgrimages 
have  carried  the  thoughts  of  people  to  each  other, 
and  monerrel  ornament  is  the  result.  It  is  not  uncom- 
mon  at  the  present  time  to  see  patterns  that  once  had 
most  sacred  significance  used  for  the  most  utterly  sec- 
ular— one  might  almost  say  profane — purposes. 

The  pilgrim  from  the  Vale  of  Cashmere,  who  for  his 
journey  to  Mecca  makes  a  rug  of  priceless  value  and 
marvellous  beauty,  weaves  into  the  fabric  all  the  tri- 
bal patterns  and  traditions  that  are  dear  to  his  heart 
as  inheritance.  At  his  bidding  wools  have  been  spe- 
cially prepared  and  dyed,  and  everything  has  helped 
toward  the  production  of  a  perfect  article.  He  may 
perchance  sell  his  rug  in  Arabia  to  a  pilgrim  who  has 
journeyed  to  the  Holy  City  from  Morocco,  who  in  turn 
sells  his  rug  to  the  other,  and  in  their  respective  homes, 
far  distant  from  their  places  of  manufacture,  these  rugs 
are  copied  by  families  and  tribes  who  doubtless  false- 
ly interpret  designs  and  but  poorly  imitate  patterns. 


78  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

Later  on,  these  rugs,  which  are  regarded  as  choice 
relics,  may  be  sold  to  travellers  who  think  that  they 
are  buying  directly  from  the  original  weavers.  The 
purchasers,  knowing  nothing  of  either  design  or 
its  migration,  respectively  regard  the  rug  bought  in 
Morocco  as  representing  Moorish  style,  and  that 
procured  in  India  as  typical  of  Indian  ornament. 
Great  confusion  of  thought  is  the  necessary  and 
inevitable  result. 

It  thus  becomes  more  than  ever  the  duty  of  the 
thoughtful  student  to  endeavour,  if  possible,  not  to  add 
to  this  lamentable  state  of  things,  and  in  no  way  can 
this  be  better  accomplished  than  by  holding  to  the 
analytical  study  of  objects  at  hand  until  the  eye 
becomes  trained  to  distinguish  for  itself  between  pure 
and  mixed  patterns.  Fortunately  it  is  not  too  late,  for 
we  are  still  near  enough  to  the  time  when  the  textile 
art  was  the  repository  for  traditional  patterns,  and 
there  is  still  left  enough  that  is  true  to  assert  itself, 
and  force  us  to  further  inquiry  and  study  of  the  great 
beginnings  of  things  ;  while  with  each  new  draught 
from  the  refreshing  fountain  of  knowledge  we  find  our- 
selves able  to  think  more  soberly  and  to  see  more 
clearly. 

The  practical  question  is  asked,  "  How  may  this  be 
done?"  In  the  first  place,  our  interest  will  lead  us  to 
consult  students  of  comparative  religions  for  all  the 
information  they  can  give  us  regarding  the  ideas  of 
primitive  man  about  the  great  problems  of  existence; 
and  from  antiquarians  and  ethnologists  we  may  learn 
how  these  thoughts  were  first  manifested  in  art. 

Man,  finding  himself  in  the  midst  of  created  things 


BUG-PLATE  XII 


SIXTEENTH-CENTURY  RUG 


MUG-PLATE  XII 


SIXTEENTH-CENTTJR Y  R  UG 

Size:  6.11  X  4.9 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

"  CT^HIS  rug  ivas  made  in  Portugal  by  expert 
-*-  weavers  brought  from  the  Orient.  It  was 
accidentally  burned  in  1881,  in  London,  Eng- 
land. It  has  a  most  interesting  private  history 
which  will  be  made  public  at  some  future  day" 
Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat. 


A..  ...*••' 


J 


'■■'!'WJ'1 


RUG-I'LATK   XI 1 


MIGRATION     OF     PATTERN  79 

other  than  himself,  could  not  fail  to  have  ideas  con- 
cerning them.  These  earliest  conceptions  of  the 
human  brain  found  expression  in  the  art  of  all  the 
peoples  of  the  earth,  and  we  trace  sun  motifs  and  star 
motifs,  rain  and  flame  motifs,  in  all  early  patterns. 
Emblems  of  deities  presiding  over  natural  phenomena, 
spirits  to  be  placated,  demons  to  be  pacified, — each 
and  all  were  symbolized,  and  thoughts  about  them 
were  perpetuated  in  ornament.  These  patterns  have 
been  corrupted  by  weavers  who  have  deviated  from 
traditional  thought  so  far  as  to  be  unable  themselves 
to  interpret  them  ;  but  still  in  the  Oriental  rug  we  find 
enough  of  value  to  insist  upon  it  as  an  interpretative 
object  to  handle,  and  the  testimony  of  many  students 
will  prove  their  ability  to  utilize  the  survival  of  ancient 
thought  found  in  many  patterns  to-day. 

The  onward  sweep  of  civilization  has  caused  the 
hidden  and  occult  thought  of  one  century  to  be  but 
empty  form  in  the  next,  so  that  we  may  deal  with 
ornament  without  penetrating  the  mysteries  that 
underlie  it  and  upon  which  it  is  based.  So  powerful 
has  been  the  cross-current  of  thought,  however,  that 
great  styles  have  grown  out  of  primitive  beliefs,  and 
when  enough  of  them  have  been  discovered  and  they 
have  become  sufficiently  apparent  to  us,  we  shall  be 
able  to  trace  the  influence  of  one  period  after  another 
in  the  world's  history,  realizing  that  under  main  styles 
are  grouped  many  lesser  divisions. 

A  few  of  the  most  important  of  these  styles  have 
been  given  to  us  in  the  five  divisions  that  we  have 
already  adopted,  and  we  must  learn  to  detect  the 
general  peculiarities  in  pattern  before   we  attempt  to 


So  THEOR1ENTAL   RUG   BOOK 

consider  local  characteristics.  Subdivisions  of  the 
subject  will  give  us,  under  the  main  styles,  Turkish, 
Caucasian,  Persian,  Turcoman,  and  Indian,  and  the 
lesser  but  quite  as  important  modifications  and  com- 
binations of  them  known  as — 

Byzantine         Moorish  Russian  Mongolian 

Jewish  Hispano-Moresque        Buddhist  Japanese 

Greek  Sicilian  Hindu 

— and  many  other  styles,  each  of  which  may  con- 
tribute some  strand  in  the  modern  rug  which  will  be 
recognized  by  the  student  who  has  become  familiar 
with  the  principles  of  pristine  art.  In  such  we  find 
the  crossing  and  recrossing  of  human  thought,  and 
the  influence  of  one  people  upon  another,  until  we 
find  that  fact  and  fancy  have  woven  a  web  that 
entrances  and  enthralls  us. 

From  the  time  of  Alexander,  the  great  "Sikunder" 
of  history,  to  the  latest  efforts  of  greater  powers  to 
subdue  the  lesser,  war  has  been  one  of  the  most  direct 
and  powerful  causes  for  the  migration  of  pattern. 
The  appearance  of  classic  Greek  ornament  in  the 
heart  of  Asia  has  puzzled  more  than  one  thoughtful 
student,  who  accepts  first  one  and  then  another  belief 
regarding  the  claims  of  Europe  and  Asia  for  priority 
in  the  creation  of  design.  Some  students  favour  the 
belief  in  the  migration  from  Asia  to  Europe  of  such 
well-known  forms  as  the  swastika  and  the  lotus,  while 
others  insist  that  both  are  Greek  forms  carried  by 
European  conquerors  into  the  Orient: 

Of  late  years  the  claims  of  China  have  forced 
themselves  upon  all  interested  in  the  migration  of 
pattern,    and    the    calm,  staid    evidence  of  centuries 


MIGRATION    OF    PATTERN  81 

makes  a  strong  appeal  in  favour  of  her  right  to  much 
that  limited  knowledge  has  heretofore  attributed  to 
better-known  places,  and  much  has  been  discovered  in 
Chinese  ornament  that  bears  evidence  of  the  use  of 
motifs  in  prehistoric  workmanship  that  were  supposed 
to  have  originated  elsewhere.  Many  students  of 
Chinese  art — or,  we  might  say  more  broadly,  of  Mon- 
golian art— feel  that,  however  absolute  may  have  been 
the  sway  of  the  Egyptian  lotus  over  the  ornament  of 
western  Asia,  it  was  the  lotus  of  China  which  gave 
birth  to  the  medallion  in  ornament  which  is  now 
known  as  a  Mongolian  element  wherever  it  is  found. 
The  early  lotus  forms  in  Chinese  art  antedate  the 
influence  of  Buddhism  in  that  empire,  and  are  very 
different  from  the  well  known  Hindu  and  Assyrian 
lotus  designs. 

Opinions  vary  so  about  facts,  that  individual  re- 
search seems  to  be  the  only  safeguard  for  the  student, 
whose  examination  and  comparison  of  existing  mate- 
rial and  opinions  should  furnish  him  with  sufficient 
reason  for  the  "  hope  that  is  in  him."  We  have  not 
yet  arrived  ;  it  is  not  for  us  to  be  "  in  at  the  finish  ;" 
but  we  have  a  right  to  our  place  in  the  circumference 
of  opinion  which  surrounds  each  disputed  fact.  Such 
devotion  to  task  has  been  displayed  by  modern 
writers  that  it  gives  us  unbounded  pleasure  to  refer  to 
their  efforts  to  establish  truth.  If  we  were  not  en- 
deavouring to  make  independent  research  with  our 
own  feeble  rushlight,  it  would  be  futile  to  do  more 
than  supply  a  bibliography  of  such  books  as  Count 
Goblet  D'Alviella's  "Migration  of  Svmbols ",  and 
numberless    articles  in    magazines  issued    by  societies 


82  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

whose  sole  object  is  to  examine  and  sift  information. 
Students  who  are  adding  their  valuable  quota  to  the 
accumulation  called  "  modern  knowledge "  are  not 
making  any  pretense.  They  are  endeavouring,  with 
unswerving  fidelity,  to  treat  their  own  chosen  and 
special  subjects  with  profound  ability,  avoiding  the 
consideration  of  all  that  does  not  bear  directly  upon 
them  :  sometimes  drawing  the  line  so  closely  around 
their  specified  purpose  that  much  that  seems  to  the 
casual  critic  to  be  related  to  it  is  excluded.  It  is  true 
that  the  great  reservoirs  of  knowledge  exist.  It  is  left 
for  us  as  individuals,  however,  to  establish  distributive 
channels,  so  that  the  truth  may  reach  all. 

It  is  surprising  how  oftentimes  some  possession 
which  has  been  for  a  century  or  two  in  one  family, 
— -handed  down  by  one  to  another,  hidden  from 
the  general  observation  of  students, — is  suddenly  dis- 
covered by  one  who,  laying  no  claim  to  even  ordinary 
knowledge,  turns,  with  the  intelligence  born  of  desire 
to  know  something  about  material  objects,  to  these  oft- 
handled  treasures,  and  for  the  first  time  realizes  that 
the  possession  is  one  that  will  throw  light  on  present 
discussion.  This  is  exemplified  by  the  attitude  of  many 
who,  after  reading  the  monograph  on  the  sivastika 
written  by  the  late  Thomas  Wilson  and  published  by 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  found  that  they  possessed 
rare  curios  decorated  with  the  now  well-known  form. 
Such  sent  their  treasures  to  Mr.  Wilson  as  gifts,  and 
in  personal  letters  they  were  assured  by  the  great 
thinker  that  each  object  silently  testified  to  what  he 
had  grown  to  believe,  and  convinced  him  afresh  of  the 
truths  he  had  endeavoured  to  demonstrate. 


MIGRATION    OF    PATTERN  S3 

Purchasers  of  Oriental  rugs  fifty  years  ago  secured 
many  in  which  patterns  were  true  to  tribal  distinc- 
tions, and  such  are  to-day  hidden  away  in  the  homes 
of  Europe  and  America,  waiting  for  intelligent  recog- 
nition. Such  possessions  hold  an  "open  sesame" 
power  which  may  lead  some  future  student  into  the 
great  labyrinth  of  speculation,  out  of  which  it  is 
hardly  possible  to  escape  without  an  opinion.  This 
view  of  the  subject  should  lead  each  individual  to 
make  an  intelligent  study  of  those  objects  over  which 
he  is  custodian,  and  the  claims  of  such  should  be  con- 
sidered, as  they,  unlike  books  about  them,  are  objec- 
tive and  should  be  allowed  to  speak  for  themselves. 

The  varying  opinions  of  those  whose  conclusions  we 
respect,  in  regard  to  the  migration  of  pattern,  lead  to 
two  important  points  of  view.  Some  hold  that 
pattern  was  independently  discovered  by  all  primitive 
peoples,  while  others  insist  that  earlier  civilization 
invented,  and  later  peoples  carried  symbolic  decora- 
tion from  one  to  the  other.  Whichever  is  true  of  the 
beginning  of  things  we  may  leave  to  learned  authorities 
to  decide  ;  but  for  light  on  the  subject  at  hand  we 
have  to  consider  both  the  patterns  that  we  can  trace 
to  mieration,  and  those  that  have  arisen  in  answer  to 
the  needs  and  beliefs  of  individual  nations;  for  our 
study  is  of  the  use  of  pattern,  not  of  its  birth,  and  as 
we  advance  we  must  learn  to  follow  the  advice  of 
Emerson,  who  says  :    . 

"  Trust  thyself :  every  heart  vibrates  to  that  iron  string."  *  *  * 
*  *  "A  man  should  learn  to  detect  and  watch  that  gleam  of  light 
which  flashes  across  his  mind  from  within,  more  than  the  lustre 
of  the  firmament  of  bards  and  sages." 


We  find  ourselves  face  to  face  with  the  necessity  of 
more  careful  examination  of  patterns  and  designs  in 
rugs,  as  some  knowledge  of  these  subjects  is  absolutely 
necessary  before  we  are  fully  equipped  to  subdivide 
the  five  great  classes  and  proceed  with  our  analytical 
study.  Our  avowed  method  is  to  deal  with  what  we 
see,  and  through  it  to  be  led  back  to  that  which  ante- 
ceded  it,  basing  pattern  upon  symbol,  and  symbol 
upon  human  thought,  instead  of  trying  to  find  in 
pattern  something  to  fit  a  preconceived  notion,  or  to 
illustrate  some  thought  to  which  it  bears  no  possible 
relation.  The  patterns  on  rugs  are  to  be  studied  after 
methods  and  materials  have  been  thoroughly  investi- 
gated, and  the  advice  which  all  collectors  should  heed 
as  they  approach  the  study  of  design  is  to  "  make 
haste  very  slowly,"  avoiding  all  effort  to  force  the  eye 
to  see  what  does  not  exist,  and  to  twist  the  designs  of 
adventition  into  those  that  show  deliberate  intention. 


M  UG-PLA  TE  XIII 


ISPAHAN  RUG 


It  UG-FLA  TE  XIII 


ISPAHAN  RUG 
Loaned  by  Mr.  James  W.  Ellsworth 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

;  <-i  HIS  seventeenth-century  Ispahan  rug  ivas 
-*■  originally  surrounded  by  a  ivide  border  of 
conventionalized  palmate  forms,  tvhich,  being 
more  ivorn  than  the  rest  of  the  rug,  has  been 
removed,  leaving  only  the  narrow  guard  stripe 
as  finish. 

"A  variety  of  tree  and  plant  forms  crowd 
each  other  upon  the  well-covered  field  of  the  rug, 
making  in  very  truth  a  woven  garden.'''' 

S.  S.  Costikyan. 


w 

< 

J 

a, 

i 

35 


DESIGNS  85 

There  are  certain  well-known  divisions  into  which 
historic  pattern  has  been  apportioned,  and  these  first 
attract  our  notice. 

In  the  rug-chart  we  have  crowned  the  side  columns 
with  "applied  thought,"  and  upon  the  accumulated 
thought  of  the  ages  we  find  that  that  which  we  call 
"  ornament"  is  alone  left  us  of  all  the  mental  activity 
of  days  that  are  past.  To  handle  ornament  carefully 
and  correctly  is  an  art  in  itself,  and  only  after  study- 
ing its  principles  should  we  consider  its  revelations. 
It  is  possible  to  be  absolute  about  a  few  things,  and  it 
is  far  better  to  hold  to  them  than  to  be  confused  in  the 
mind  over  many  things. 

Ornament  is  decoration  that  has  evolved  from  pat- 
terns that  were  based  on  symbols  used  by  primitive 
peoples  to  express  thought.  The  signs  stood  for 
ideas,  which,  interpreted  by  one  generation  after  an- 
other, finally  dropped  away,  the  more  or  less  well 
copied  signs  remaining.  Being  altered  first  by  one 
weaver  and  then  another,  pattern  resulted,  and  the 
pattern  has  become  ornament,  and  as  such  is  taught 
in  our  schools  where  design  is  applied  to  all  sorts  of 
materials  under  the  name  of  "  historic  ornament." 

All  ornament  may  be  separated  into  three  main 
divisions, — geometric,  naturalistic,  and  conventional. 
Geometric  ornament  is  naturally  the  first  to  reveal 
itself  to  the  weaver,  because  of  the  nature  of  the 
materials  used.  The  earliest  patterns  are  always  due 
to  the  limitations  of  the  weaver,  who  must  confine 
himself  to  the  opportunities  afforded  by  warp  and 
woof,  which  restrict  him  to  rectilinear  designs. 
Curves  and  circles  are  of  later  development,  and  show 


86  THE     ORIENTAL     RUG    BOOK 

the  ability  of  the  weaver  to  overcome  difficulties. 
Naturalistic  ornament  shows  that  the  weaver  was  a 
thinker  as  well,  and,  no  matter  how  rude  the  copy  of 
flower,  leaf,  or  bird,  thought  may  be  traced  in  all 
attempts  to  represent  objects.  Conventional  orna- 
ment may  be  looked  upon  as  an  arranging  of  motifs 
to  suit  the  needs  and  fancy  of  the  designer. 

These  three  great  divisions  of  ornament  may  each 
be  divided  into  other  three — ornament  of  adventition, 
ornament  of  construction,  and  functional  ornament. 
When,  without  any  forethought,  the  dropping  of  a 
stitch  revealed  to  the  ancient  Egyptian  that  it  was 
not  absolutely  necessary  to  make  a  plain,  regular 
weave,  but  that,  by  skipping  some  threads  of  the  warp 
in  running  in  the  woof,  an  irregular  diagonal  effect 
would  result,  this  accidental  discovery,  simple  as  it 
now  seems  to  look  back  upon,  gave  the  name  "  Alex- 
andrine weave  "  to  irregular  arrangements  of  warp 
and  woof,  and  produced  a  pattern  of  adventition. 
Constructional  ornament  owes  its  development  to 
the  fact  that  oftentimes  old  methods  of  manufacture 
survive  in  pattern  after  they  are  no  longer  used.  A 
weaver,  for  instance,  makes  a  mat  of  thick  ropes  which 
he  ties  together  with  fibre  of  any  kind.  A  surface 
pattern  is  the  result.  Later  on,  when,  some  other 
method  being  employed  to  make  floor  covering,  there 
is  no  longer  need  of  the  primitive  process,  the  surface 
pattern  is  copied  simply  because  it  is  considered  orna- 
mental. Functional  ornament  is  perhaps,  of  the  three, 
the  most  indicative  of  absence  of  thought  in  the 
interpretation  of  design ;  the  weaver  or  craftsman 
adding  for  ornament  something  that  once  stood  for 


DESIGNS  S7 

use,  and  which  has  become  meaningless,  having  lost 
all  semblance  of  the  thought  and  need  which  called  it 
into  existence  for  a  purpose. 

It  will  very  soon  become  evident  that  that  which 
we  have  already  formulated  and  for  convenience  have 
called  by  names  of  our  own  selection  is  none  other 
than  historic  ornament  arbitrarily  classified,  and  our 
thought  lends  itself  to  methodic  arrangement  in  a 
way  other  than  it  could  had  we  not  already  made 
independent  discoveries.  Our  Oriental  friends  would 
hardly  understand  the  nomenclature  that  we  have 
adopted,  for  "  historic  ornament  "  is  the  name  given 
by  students  to  that  which  in  the  East  is  much  more 
simply  defined  as  "  tribal  pattern."  When  a  pattern 
has  been  copied  by  one  generation  after  another,  it 
becomes  "  classic,"  and  the  original  ideograph  or 
symbol  which  antedates  the  pattern  is  known  as 
"  archaic." 

Tribal  patterns  are  used  on  both  coarse  and  fine 
rugs.  The  chief,  or  ruler,  among  nomad  weavers,  or 
the  mo/narch  of  more  civilized  people,  may  order  rugs 
made  of  the  very  finest  materials  possible,  or  such 
may  be  ordered  as  "tribute-rugs,"  and  all  these  will 
have  significant  time-honoured  tribal  patterns.  The 
weaver  who  for  his  ruler  makes  this  costly  rug  may  at 
the  same  time  weave  a  coarse  rug  for  his  own  private 
use  of  the  same  tribal  pattern.  Again,  as  nomad 
weavers  migrate  and  settle  in  towns  and  villages  they 
learn  to  use  materials  in  a  less  crude  way,  so  that  we 
find  tribal  patterns  in  rugs  in  which  the  materials 
vary. 

Tribal  patterns  originally  served  to   denote  owner- 


88  THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

ship,  and  even  now  are  used  in  remote  places  for  the 
same  purpose,  fidelity  to  the  traditional  pattern  being 
considered  a  distinctive  virtue.  Such  designs  are 
handed  down  from  one  generation  to  another  by  aged 
weavers,  who  draw  in  the  sand  the  well-remembered 
details  for  younger  workers  to  copy.  Fragments  of 
old  rugs  are  treasured  by  those  who  possess  them,  and 
are  laid  aside  to  serve  as  samples  for  reproduction. 
There  is  almost  pathetic  reverence  among  Orientals 
for  genuinely  antique  specimens  of  celebrated  weav- 
ings,  and  an  effort  is  being  made  by  many  modern 
commercial  houses  to  have  these  old  styles  repro- 
duced rather  than  have  the  market  flooded  with 
European  designs. 


BEL UCIUSTA X   RUG 
Loanbd  hy  Tiffany  Studios 


O  K 


■  es  for  the 
n  being 

i her  by  a. 
i  ll-rememb< 
gments 
•ssess  them,  and 
for  reproductr 
among  Orientals 
if  celebrated   weav- 
many  modern 
'  ■■!   styles   repro- 
,,VA     /L  :t    flooded    with 

\mhi\VY  \j<$  foawjooJi 


'&$& 


o 


CHAPTER  XIV 


WORLD-IDEAS 


Q 

t 


1 


Certain  world-ideas  which  have  given  rise  to  many 
of  the  most  significant  symbolic  patterns  must  be 
broadly  considered  before  taking  up  each  ornament  in 
turn.  The  recognition  of  natural  phenomena  by  each 
dweller  on  earth,  wherever  he  may  have  lived  and 
whenever  he  may  have  thought,  gave  rise  to  a  wide- 
spread tendency  to  depict  individual  observations. 

In  the  "  niche  "  in  the  rug-chart  several  of  these 
world-ideas  are  suggested  by  their  appropriate  sym- 
bols, which  seem  to  be  of  a  class  of  their  own  and  to 
have  universal  significance.  Careful  examination  of 
the  evolution  of  pattern  shows  that  all  symbols  may, 
for   our  convenience,  be  divided   into  three  classes, — 


90  THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

primary,  secondary,  and  indefinite.  The  first,  or 
primary,  are  those  that  were  invented  to  stand  for 
elemental  phenomena,  such,  for  example,  as  the  earth, 
the  sun,  the  rain,  the  stars,  clouds,  thunder  and  light- 
ning, and  the  wind,  which  were  indicated  in  many 
places  by  the  same  general  signs.  The  secondary 
symbols  are  those  that  show  thought  and  imaginings 
about  these  natural  things,  and  the  manifestation  of 
this  thought  differs  in  different  localities.  Indefinite 
symbols  are  those  that  illustrate  human  appeal  from 
below  to  powers  above,  such  an  attitude  of  mind  lead- 
ing to  the  establishment  of  creeds  and  religious  belief, 
totem  worship,  and  similar  evidences  of  co-operation 
with  Divine  energy. 

By  critical  examination  of  symbols  we  may  easily 
decide  in  our  own  minds  to  which  of  these  divisions 
units  of  ornament  originally  belonged.  For  example, 
take  the  most  simple  and  natural  observation  a  human 
being  could  make.  Man,  finding  in  himself  a  centre, 
represented  the  earth  as  bounded  by  its  horizon  in 
the  form  of  a  circle,  in  which  a  cross  with  four  arms 
indicated  the  four  points  of  direction.  Other  primi- 
tive thinkers  made  a  straight  line  to  represent  the 
earth,  and  a  semi-circle  over  it  for  the  sky.  This 
Hiawatha  taught  his  people: 

"  For  the  earth  he  drew  a  straight  line, 
For  the  sky  a  bow  above  it — 
White  the  space  between  for  day-time, 
Filled  with  little  stars  for  night-time, 
On  the  left  a  point  for  sunrise, 
On  the  top  a  point  for  noontide — 
And  for  rain  and  cloudy  weather 
Wavy  lines  descending  from  it." 


R  UG-PLA  TE  XI V 


ANTIQ UE  KULAH  RUG 


RUG-PLATE  XIV 


ANTIQUE  KULAH  RUG 

(Oriental  Expert's  Description.) 

'  ^i    HIS  rug  is  over  two  hundred  years  old,  and 
-*■       is  an  antique  Kulak." 

Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat. 

Author's  Description 

In  order  to  recognize  the  measure  of  success 
reached  by  the  designer  of  this  fabric,  the  rug 
must  be  studied  from  the  apex  of  the  prayer- 
niche,  from  which  point  it  is  evident  that  in  the 
flowers  that  crown  the  tree  form  is  shown  an  at- 
tempt to  represent  open  blossoms  deviating  from 
a  strict  adherence  to  designs  in  profile  which 
are  very  well  illustrated  in  the  conventionalized 
pink  in  one  of  the  border  stripes  and  edging  the 
field. 

The  oblong  panels  at  top  and  bottom  of  the  cen- 
tral panel,  and  the  repetition  of  the  same  de- 
sign in  the  space  penetrated  by  the  prayer-niche, 
are  strictly  Ghiordez  characteristics,  and  should 
be  acknowledged  as  such  when  found  in  rugs  of 
other  makes. 

In  colour  the  field  is  of  dull  blue  below  and  a 
light  blue  above  the  prayer-niche,  while  yellows, 
tans,  dove-colour,  soft  pinks  and  greens,  are 
harmoniously  blended  in  the  designs  upon  a 
cream-coloured  ground. 


u>aV-..«Ji-. 


RUG-PLATE  XIV 


WORLD-IDEAS  91 

The  sun,  above  all  other  subjects  which  furnished 
motifs  for  primary  symbols,  suggested  early  symbolic 
forms  which  have  endured  from  the  beginning  of 
things.  These  gave  rise  to  a  vast  number  of  second- 
ary symbols,  for  man's  thought  has  never  wearied  in 
its  effort  to  show  respectful  allegiance  to  the  king  of 
the  sky,  and  many  human  contrivances  for  assistance 
in  his  long  race,  and  for  rest  at  its  end  were  invented 
and  symbolized  ;  for  example,  the  "  sun-boat,"  result- 
ing from  the  idea  that  as  rain  came  from  the  clouds,  a 
boat  for  the  sun  was  necessary  on  occasion. 

Whatever  the  subject  selected  from  natural  phe- 
nomena, three  attitudes  seem  to  exist  toward  it  when 
it  is  pictorially  represented, — observation,  reflection, 
and  belief  or  creed.  Man,  observing  that  light,  heat, 
and  rain  caused  the  earth  to  bring  forth  shrubs  and 
trees,  at  first  symbolized  the  observations,  and  later, 
after  reflection,  he  so  modified  primitive  symbols  as 
to  indicate  his  belief,  thus  producing  a  complication 
and  multiplication  of  thoughts  and  ideas.  Following 
closely  upon  the  observation  of  light,  its  opposite,  dark- 
ness was  pictured  in  secondary  symbols,  and  later  the 
thought  of  co-operation  with  the  great  forces  gave  a 
number  of  talismanic  symbols  which  were  considered 
useful  in  appeasing  the  evil  spirit  of  darkness  and  in 
worshipping  the  good  spirit. 

The  desirability  of  establishing  means  of  communi- 
cation between  earth  and  heaven  led  to  all  sorts  of 
means  to  bring  about  desired  results  in  human  affairs, 
and  every  obstruction  was  removed  that  might  hinder 
the  approach  of  the  Supreme  Spirit.  Trees  were 
grown  for  His  resting-place  ;  stones  were  erected   for 


92  THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

sacrifices  to  Omnipotence;  and,  so  that  there  might 
be  ease  of  access  and  a  direct  passage  made  between 
heaven  and  earth,  bells  were  jingled  to  stir  the  spirit 
spaces,  flags  were  made  to  flutter  in  the  wind,  drums 
and  clappers  of  various  sorts  were  sounded  on  earth 
to  awaken  and  call  the  attention  of  the  Deity,  and  in 
the  mutterings  of  thunder  and  the  darts  of  lightning  a 
divine  response  was  recognized. 

The  patterns  that  have  existed  for  many  centuries 
have  almost  invariably  been  evolved  from  primary 
symbols,  and  they  alone  are  absolute,  for  as  soon  as 
speculation  begins  there  is  a  mingling  of  motifs  which 
interrupts  all  natural  mental  processes  in  the  effort  of 
interpretation. 

The  inevitable  effect  of  observation  and  reflection 
was  to  cause  primitive  men  to  adopt  some  sort  of 
belief,  and  thus  the  early  religions  of  the  world  were 
established.  Some  of  the  most  important  symbols 
seem  to  have  had  independent  origin  in  each  of  the 
great  creeds  of  the  world  ;  others  migrated  from  one 
to  the  other,  and  were  finally  adopted  by  European 
nations,  who  substituted  Christian  names  for  pagan 
and  added  the  attributes  of  saints  to  those  of  heathen 
gods. 

Instead  of  taking  up  the  study  of  each  of  the  sym- 
bolic forms  best  known  to  antiquarians,  or  of  trying  to 
establish  any  of  our  individual  theories,  we  must  con- 
fine ourselves  within  the  limits  of  our  avowed  purpose 
to  study  pattern  analytically,  and  to  trace  the  origin 
only  of  such  as  have  survived  in  the  ornament  of 
obtainable  objects. 


CHAPTER  XV 

TURKISH    RUGS 

With  chart  in  hand  we  may  here  review  the  entire 
subject  and  endeavour  to  use  the  general  considera- 
tions as  mapped  out,  in  the  examination  of  as  many- 
rugs  as  possible,  presenting  to  ourselves  the  ster- 
eotyped questions  about  shape,  size,  possible  use, 
materials,  colours,  methods  of  manufacture,  style  of 
ornament,  and  religious  significance,  that  we  may  be 
led  legitimately  to  demand  of  each  object  that  it  re- 
veals to  us  its  nationality  in  spite  of  all  that  it  may 
have  borrowed  from  outside  the  boundaries  of  the 
land  of  its  birth. 

We  are  not  travelling  in  the  Orient,  where  we  might 
watch  the  busy  fingers  of  native  men  and  women 
tying  with  untiring  patience  gay  knots  of  colour  on 
the  grey  background  of  carefully  strung  warp.  We 
cannot  speak  with  conviction  about  the  pots  of  colour 
used,  or  the  way  wools  are  washed  and  dyed,  or  even 
of  the  commercialism  of  to-day;  but  we  have,  in  com- 
mon with  all  travellers  and  students,  all  that  any  one 
has  about  the  past,  every  record,  writing,  hieroglyph, 
and  account  of  exploration  and  discovery.  All  letters 
of  travellers  and  descriptions  of  the  doings  of  the 
mighty  monarchs  of  ancient  times  are  ours  to-day,  a 
common  heritage  ;  and  right  in  our  hands,  here  in  our 


94 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


modern  homes,  we  have  the  most  significant  of  all  art 
objects  to  assist  us,  —  the  Oriental  rug  ! 

When  we  first  began  to  hear  about  Oriental  rugs  in 
this  country  they  were  called  "Turkish"  rugs.  This 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  they  were  shipped  from 
Turkey,  and  Constantinople  became  a  prominent  cen- 
tre, as  still  it  is,  for  the  sale  and  distribution  of  vast 
quantities  of  rugs  and  carpets.  No  matter  where  they 
were  made,  they  were  carried  by  land  and  sea  and 
sold  in  either  Constantinople  or  Smyrna.  After  a 
while,  those  who  had  learned  more  than  others  about 
the  matter  called  all  Oriental  rugs  "  Smyrna "  rugs, 
and  this  name  was  in  vogue  for  years.  Then  we 
began  to  hear  of  "Anatolian"  mats  and  rugs,  and 
learned  that  they  too  were  "  Turkish,"  Anatolia  being 
the  name  applied  to  Asia  Minor.  The  three  names, 
"  Turkish,"  "  Smyrna,"  and  "  Anatolian  "  served  those 
who  bought  and  sold  until  the  names  which  applied 
to  the  country,  city  and  province  failed  to  satisfy 
those  who  wished  to  be  more  explicit,  and  travellers 
who  went  from  place  to  place  began  to  study  the 
styles  that  were  adopted  by  the  weavers,  whether 
they  were  nomads,  villagers,  or  dwellers  in  towns,  and 
we  began  to  hear  of  "  Kulah,"  "  Ghiordes,"  "  Ladik," 
"  Konieh,"  and  "  Melace  "  rugs,  of  "Mosul"  produc- 
tions and  "  Baghdad  ,;  weaves.  Then,  when  com- 
mercialism seized  European  agents,  alluring  offers 
were  made  of  carpets  and  rugs  manufactured  to  fit 
any  room,  and  large  carpets  were  woven  after  designs 
furnished  by  the  agents,  who  ordered  the  goods  and 
forwarded  money  to  erect  looms  large  enough  for  the 
weaving    of    fabrics    of    extra    size.       Consuls    were 


JEWISH    EMBROIDERED   LINEN   SHOWING   DESIGNS  COPIED    IN   RUGS 


TURKISH     RUGS  95 

directed,  by  their  respective  governments,  to  look  into 
the  matter  of  weaving  in  the  places  where  they  were 
stationed,  and  now  and  then  in  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines we  noticed  the  names,  then  new  to  us,  of  towns 
where  the  rug  industry  was  stimulated  by  increased 
demand. 

In  Turkish  rugs  before  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury,  though  the  weaving  was,  as  it  has  always  been 
in  western  Asia,  of  coarse  quality,  the  designs  were 
native,  the  dyes  pure,  and  the  methods  those  that  had 
obtained  through  the  years.  Soft  blues,  greens, 
yellows,  and  vivid  reds  were  blended  with  a  skill  that 
gave  subdued  effects,  though  dealing  with  primary 
colours.  The  rugs  that  first  came  from  Turkey  were 
apt,  in  design,  to  follow  the  general  form  of  the 
hearth-rug,  in  which  the  field  of  the  rug  was  pointed 
at  both  ends.  In  antique  Turkish  rugs  the  chief 
characteristic,  to  which  allusion  was  made  in  the 
chapter  on  classification,  is  the  use  of  detached  motifs 
of  ornament,  and  such,  repeated  in  certain  portions  of 
the  rugs,  produced  in  some  cases  an  ornamentation 
that  lost  in  art  value  because  of  its  rigid  adherence  to 
symmetry.  Effort  to  copy  Persian  designs  gave  rise 
originally  to  this  style  of  decoration,  but  it  has  now 
become  distinctive  in  Turkish  productions  and  differs 
from  anything  else. 

The  location  of  Asia  Minor  cannot  be  too  often 
considered  by  those  who  are  studying  the  products  of 
Anatolia.  Its  nearness  to  Europe,  and  its  position 
midway  between  the  Orient  and  the  Occident,  have 
made  its  art  sensitive  to  every  subtle  influence.  It  has 
been   the   birthplace  of  many  of  the  arts.     In  needle- 


96  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

work  its  women  have  always  excelled,  and  much  that 
has  been  accomplished  by  the  needle  has  been  copied 
in  weaving.  A  close  study  of  antique  Asia  Minor 
and  Syrian  embroideries,  many  of  them  the  dowry 
linens  of  past  ages,  reveals  a  native  style  in  treatment, 
and  leads  to  recognition  of  the  same  in  the  adaptation 
of  the  designs  to  warp  and  woof. 

It  is  important  that  we  dissociate  Asia  Minor  and 
Syrian  productions  from  those  of  the  provinces  that 
separate  Turkey,  from  Persia — Mesopotamia,  Kurdis- 
tan and  Armenia, — so  that  we  may  be  cognizant  of 
the  peculiarities  in  purely  Turkish  fabrics.  For  our 
purposes,  therefore,  we  include  in  this  division  merely 
the  country  west  of  the  Euphrates,  where  in  hamlets 
and  by  wandering  tribes,  as  well  as  by  well-known 
weavers  in  towns  given  over  to  manufacture,  rugs  are 
woven  and  carried  to  one  or  another  of  the  special 
markets  for  sale,  where  the  goods  are  often  given  the 
name  of  the  place  where  they  are  sold,  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  name  of  the  town  or  village  where  they 
were  woven. 

This  leads  to  great  confusion  in  classification.  Two 
influences  of  widely  differing  nature  must  be  consid- 
ered in  studying  the  fabrics  of  any  chosen  rug-produc- 
ing district  of  Asia.  These  are,  first,  the  effect  upon 
design  of  the  spontaneous,  unhindered  thought  of  the 
nomad  following  his  sheep  and  goats  through  the 
mountains,  under  the  sky's  wide  canopy,  with  lack  of 
all  restraint  and  conventionality,  including  in  the 
most  irresponsible  way  anything  in  design  which  he 
picks  up  on  his  travels,  weaving  along  with  tribal 
designs  all  sorts  of  odd   conceits.     The  second  innV 


TURKISH    RUGS  97 

ence  is  that  which  bears  evidence  in  fabrics  to  a  long- 
continued  use,  in  settled  localities,  of  historic  design. 

Without  any  knowledge  of  the  migratory  habits  of 
the  tribes,  who  have  spread  themselves  all  over  middle 
Asia,  we  should  be  sadly  confused  in  our  study  of 
ornament.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  it  seems  wise  to 
exclude  from  "Turkish"  rugs  those  that  bear  such 
direct  relation  to  Caucasian  products  that  they  are 
often  mistaken  for  them. 

Turning  from  a  careful  study  of  a  good  atlas,  upon 
which  we  may  locate  the  already  mentioned  rug  dis- 
tricts, to  our  own  maps,  we  may  enter  the  names  speci- 
fied in  our  first  classification  of  Turkish  rugs, — Melace, 
Ghiordes,  Konieh,  Kulah,etc, — and,  with  typical  illus- 
trations in  hand,  proceed  to  study  the  rugs  of  each 
district,  and  the  special  patterns  that  for  some  unac- 
countable reason  have  been  adhered  to  in  spite  of  the 
rise  and  fall  of  Empires  under  whose  control  the  land 
has  been  for  centuries. 

The  whole  of  western  Asia  as  well  as  Egypt  and 
Morocco,  should  be  included  in  any  comprehensive 
study  of  Turkish  textiles,  for  from  a  Mohammedan 
standpoint  alone  can  the  subject  be  properly  grasped. 
The  religion  of  the  Turk  has  absorbed  into  itself  the 
most  meaningful  of  old  Jewish  symbols.  Tracing  its 
ancestry  back  to  Abraham,  it  has  a  right  to  all  the 
Hebraic  traditions.  To  the  Moslem  as  well  as  to  the 
Jew  belongs  the  six-pointed  star,  the  "  Ensoph  "  of 
the  Chaldeans,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  its  prev- 
alence in  the  art  of  Syria.  In  Turkey  we  may  find 
traces  of  Greek,  Byzantine,  Persian,  Rhodian,  Roman, 
and   Russian  ornament.     In  fact  it  is  in  western  Asia 


98  THEOR1ENTALRUGBOOK 

that  we  find  Chaldean  and  astrological  influences  in 
old  designs,  and  so  elemental  in  their  significance  are 
many  Arabic,  Syrian,  and  Asia  Minor  patterns  that  we 
may  safely  recognize  the  fact  that  the  mind  of  the 
people  who  migrated  westward  from  the  heart  of 
Mesopotamia  had  in  it  a  conquering  power  which  is 
felt  in  design  to  the  present  day. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  study  the  textiles  of 
western  Asia  without  some  knowledge  of  the  potter's 
art,  for  the  two  arts  are  more  absolutely  interdepen- 
dent in  that  region  than  in  almost  any  other.  Designs 
in  the  tiles  and  pottery  of  Damascus  and  Rhodes,  in 
fact  upon  the  enameled  walls  of  mosques  and  tombs, 
wherever  the  Saracen  travelled,  may  always  be  easily 
distinguished  from  the  Persian,  which  in  the  vast 
majority  of  cases  gave  them  birth.  These  enduring 
materials  have  been  an  unceasing  fountain  of  supply 
to  the  workers  in  other  arts,  and  an  evidence  of  the 
thought-life  of  the  people  during  the  successive  dom- 
ination of  foreign  and  domestic  rule.  We  sometimes 
find  the  designs  upon  enameled  tiles  copied  in  their 
entirety  upon  grave  carpets,  and,  wherever  the  Moham- 
medan settled,  the  two  arts,  those  of  the  potter  and 
of  the  weaver,  have  been  companions.  There  are,  in 
truth,  so  many  side-lights  on  the  subject  of  design, 
that  we  are  loth  to  leave  any  untouched.  The  quilted 
and  applique  decorations  of  Cairo  and  Damascus  fur- 
nish the  most  useful  means  of  analyzing  ornament, 
for  such  free  work  can  be  done  with  the  scissors  and 
needle  that  each  detail  of  a  pattern  is  wrought  out  to 
perfection,  and  upon  the  inside  of  canvas  tents  one 
often  finds  a  wealth  of  ornament  to  decipher. 


TURKISH    RUGS  99 

There  are  some  styles  of  Oriental  rugs  that  are 
generally  classed  as  Mohammedan  without  regard  to 
the  nationality  of  the  weavers,  and  under  the  name 
Hispano-Moresque  (a  term  used  in  describing  pottery 
made  in  Spain  by  the  Moors  by  processes  taught  by 
the  Persians),  are  grouped  the  productions  of  various 
countries  where  the  religion  of  the  Prophet  has  per- 
sistently held  sway.  An  iridescence  such  as  is  at  its 
best  in  some  old  "  Melez  "  rugs  of  southwestern  Asia 
Minor,  whither  the  influence  of  Rhodes  must  have 
carried  Persian  suggestions,  and  also  in  some  antique 
Cairo  and  Morocco  gems,  is  traceable  to  a  chemical 
mingling  of  colours  in  careless  methods  of  dyeing 
and  to  the  atmospheric  effect  of  years  of  exposure. 
We  frequently  see  in  modern  rugs  an  effort  made  to  re- 
produce this  iridescence  by  combining  many  different 
shades  and  strands  of  extremely  fine  wool  in  each 
knot  so  that  the  mottled  effect  produced  might  sug- 
gest the  antique  colouring.  It  is  an  interesting  fact 
that  a  name  which  connects  itself  with  the  latest 
development  of  an  art  in  a  country  far  removed  from 
its  place  of  birth,  will  often  establish  itself  in  the 
vocabulary  of  the  student,  who,  not  knowing  the 
original  terms,  will  use  the  new  word  to  describe 
the  old  process.  Thus  the  name  "Hispano-Mor- 
esque "suggests  a  Spanish  process,  whereas  the  art  of 
lustre  was  originally  carried  from  Persia  to  Spain 
by  the  Moslems  long  after  its  invention  in  Persia. 

To  Byzantine  influence  many  Turkish  designs  may 
be  traced,  and  it  is  difficult  to  separate  the  mosaic 
patterns  of  Asia  Minor  from  the  geometric  ornamen- 
tation of  the  Turcoman  and  nomad  tribes,  though  the 


too  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

latter  were  ordinarily  based  on  the  study  of  natural 
phenomena  upon  which  tribal  pattern  grew,  and  the 
former  were  copied  directly  from  the  mosaic  work  in 
stone  which  was  forced  into  shape  by  the  limitations 
of  material.  We  also  find  among  old  Turkish  patterns 
many  that  carry  thought  into  the  past,  when  Chris- 
tianity was  first  warring  with  the  infidels  ;  and  in  the 
St.  George  and  the  dragon  country  Christian  and 
pagan  designs  are  often  mingled,  while  to  the  north- 
east, Armenians,  who  claim  theirs  to  be  the  oldest 
Christian  Church,  have  so  blended  secular  and  religi- 
ous concepts  as  to  cause  the  greatest  confusion.  Be- 
cause of  the  vast  amount  of  conflicting  evidence,  the 
task  of  identification  of  objects  is  not  easy,  and  yet 
we  proceed  with  courage,  as  analysis  will  at  least 
familiarize  us  with  oft-used  motifs,  and  in  the  laby- 
rinth of  Eastern  symbolism  we  may  perchance  find 
much  to  stimulate  further  research. 

The  Oriental  rug  in  an  Occidental  home  is  a  very 
1?V«frtti«   fn  different  thing  from  what  it  is  in 

Uurfctsb  IRuos.      the  land  of. its  birth  or  even  in 

the  possession  of  a  dealer,  from 
whom  one  may  often  learn  much  in  regard  to  its 
possible  and,  perchance,  absolute  ancestry.  As  a 
thing  of  beauty  it  has  a  right  to  exist, — it  pleases  the 
eye  and  serves  its  purpose  in  every  way,  even  though 
we  ask  of  it  no  questions  and  bring  to  it  no  response. 
The  sunlight  of  the  day  and  the  shadows  of  the 
gloaming  only  increase  and  augment  its  charms.  But 
when  there  come  to  us  moments  of  interest  in  the 
history  of  Asia  and  of  design,  suddenly  we  are  aware 
that  in  the  material  object  before    us  we  may  learn  to 


BUG-PI, ATE  XI 


rv 


MELHAZ  PRAYER-RUG 


fTTATK  TBACHER*  • 
AANTA  BARBARA.  CALIfORMtM 


2±& 


HUG- PLATE  XV 


MELHAZ  PRAYER-RUG 

Size:  6.3      4 

Loaned  by  Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

u  CT^HIS  is  a  Melhaz  prayer-rug.  Melhaz  is  a 
-*■  city  of  great  antiquity  in  Asia  Minor,  near 
the  border,  just  opposite  the  island  of  Rhodes. 
Ancient  rugs  of  this  kind  represent  perfect  har- 
mony of  colours;  the  richest  red  in  the  centre, 
and  the  most  beautiful  shades  of  golden-canary 
and  greenish-yellows  composing  the  border. 
Exquisite  shades  of  violet  are  also  to  be  found 
in  these  rugs."         Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat. 

Author's  Description 

We  find  in  this  Melhaz  rug  exceptional  oppor- 
tunity to  trace  Mongolian  influences  which  have 
been  modified  by  Caucasian  handling.  Violet 
shades  of  rarest  beauty  and  rigid  adherence  to 
tribal  designs  in  the  borders  force  themselves  up- 
on us  as  diagnostic  features  in  comparative  study. 
The  inner  stripe  of  the  border  bears  a  device 
which  identifies  a  specimen  as  Melhaz,  since  it 
is  not  as  interchangeable  among  weavers  asmany 
of  the  border  patterns  of  Ghiordez  and  Kulah. 

The  colours  in  this  rug  are  light  green,  cream, 
moss,  and  yellowish-brown,  red,  and  dark  blue, 
with  touches  of  light  blue,  pink,  black,  and  lav- 
ender. The  kaleidoscopic  quality  of  the  designs 
in  old  Melhaz  knot-carpets  is  seen  to  perfection 
in  this  rug,  which  has  a  quality  so  rare  that  it 
stands  by  itself. 


RUG- PLATE  XV 


TURKISH     RUGS  101 

detect  evidences  of  thought,  and  we  turn  with  new 
interest  to  that  which  lias  long  been  a  treasured 
possession,  but  has  never  before  been  either  more  or 
less  than  that. 

We  learn  from  one  skilled  in  deciphering  patterns, 
hieroglyphs,  and  ideographs,  that  in  western  Asia, 
particularly  in  Syria  and  Arabia,  the  use  of  the  equilat- 
eral triangle  antedates  the  adoption  of  any  other  form 
in  design  ;  that  as  a  primary  symbol  it  was  used  to  in- 
dicate the  most  mysterious  and  occult  belief  of  a 
people  given  to  vain  imaginings.  We  discover,  in  our 
intercourse  with  the  Orientals  who  have  adhered 
most  absolutely  to  their  native  beliefs,  that,  however 
modern  civilization  may  have  forced  upon  them  Euro- 
pean ideas,  there   come   times  to   each   and    all   when 


THE   SEAL    OF   SOLOMON.  THE    SIGNET   OF   DAVID. 

inherited  convictions  alone  satisfy  and  alone  are 
regarded.  In  many  years  search  I  have  found  no 
sign,  symbol,  or  design  so  frequently  bound  upon  the 
body  as  a  talisman  as  the  triangle,  and  to  it  scores  of 
Turkish  patterns  may  be  traced.  The  seal  of  Solo- 
mon, built  on  the  right  angled  triangle,  and  the  signet 
of    David,    based    on    the    equilateral    triangle     show 


io2  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

relations  of  forms  to  each  other  which  are  most 
convincing  to  students  who  care  to  penetrate  through 
the  sign  to  that  which  it  signifies.  Turkish  geometric 
patterns  are  largely  indebted  to  the  equilateral 
triangle  for  a  fidelity  to  tradition  which  can  readily  be 
traced  in  designs.  In  some  few  rare  old  specimens  of 
Asia  Minor  weaves,  isolated  fragments  of  many  designs 
may  be  found.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  trace  to 
rugs  themselves  the  designs  which  weavers  have 
copied.  In  old  embroideries,  paintings,  and  manu- 
scripts are  found  evidences  of  the  determination  to 
hold  to  tribal  and  national  ideas  when  decorating 
ceremonial  art  objects,  and  to  these  it  is  always  most 
safe  to  revert  in  studying  a  design  and  tracing  its  evo- 
lution. In  the  analysis  of  any  pattern  which  we  are 
studying,  it  is  wise,  whether  we  be  draughtsmen  or 
not,  to  draw  as  carefully  as  possible  the  main  outlines 
of  border  designs.  Take,  for  example,  any  familiar 
Turkish  border  seen  in  old  Ladik  or  Anatolian  fabrics. 
A  flower  looks  like  a  flower  until,  in  endeavouring  to 
trace  it,  we  find  it  is  composed  of  one  square  or  triangle 
after  another,  and  has,  with  utmost  difficulty,  been 
given  floral  form.  On  Rhodian  tiles,  pottery,  and 
embroidery  we  find  the  ancestors  of  many  patterns 
that  have  been  thought  to  belong  exclusively  to  Asia 
Minor,  but  which  have  evidently,  through  the  Sara- 
cenic occupation  of  the  islands  of  the  sea,  found  their 
way  into  Anatolia,  and  have  influenced  geometric 
Turkish  designs.  The  cross-stitch,  so  universally  used 
in  Greek  and  Russian  embroideries,  has  perpetuated 
many  meaningful  designs,  while  in  old  lace  and  cut- 
work,  patterns   were  forced  to  take  rectilinear  forms, 


TURKISH    RUGS  103 

but  it  is  not  difficult  to  distinguish  between  those  that 
were  deliberately  based  on  squares  and  triangles  and 
those  which  assumed  angular  forms  because  of  the 
limitations  of  materials. 

We  find  that  the  design  known  as  the  "  link,"  the 
"  spiral,"  and  by  various  other  names,  was  first  repre- 
sented as  a  combination  of  triangles  ^.  And  in 
many  old  designs  the  two  angles  face  each  other 
without  the  connecting  line  ^-  All  through  the 
western  Orient  this  pattern  can  be  found  in  fabrics, 
— in  the  borders  of  Asia  Minor  rugs  and  as  detached 
ornament  on  the  field  of  nomad  weavings, — in  some 
a  mere  "  happen-so "  arrangement  and  in  others 
showing  a  definite  use  of  it  as  a  "  sun  motif."  The 
spirals  of  Egyptian  ornament  are  being  studied  very 
carefully  by  students  who  feel  that  their  significance 
is  far  greater  than  was  at  first  supposed.  Recognition 
of  these  three  variants  of  the  design,  the  link,  the  sun 
motif,  and  the  spiral,  makes  us  cognizant  of  the  fact 
that  it  was  originally  an  interesting  motif,  and  we 
may  look  for  its  appearance  and  learn  to  distinguish 
between  the  significant  and  the  meaningless  use  of  it. 
Until  within  a  century  or  two  the  Orient  has  seemed 
remote,  and  the  lay  mind  has  not  grasped  the  fact 
that  in  Turkey-in-Asia  are  native  many  of  the  designs 
known  to  us  as  European.  Confusion  has  resulted, 
and  many  people,  not  interested  in  the  study  of 
Oriental  rugs  claim  that  the  old  patterns  found  in 
Sicilian  silks  and  Italian  velvets  were  inventions  of 
the  weavers  of  Europe,  whereas  in  reality  the  Crusa- 
ders, on  their  return,  introduced  into  their  own  lands 
all   sorts    of    Oriental    designs.     Our    knowledge    of 


104 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


Italian  and  Spanish  adaptations  so  far  anteceded  our 
interest  even  in  the  remote  lands  east  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean that  we  have  to  unlearn  much  that  we  have 
hitherto  accepted. 

It  is  surprising  how  true  it  is  that  the  eye  sees  only 
that  which  it  is  trained  to  observe.  Ask  any  dozen 
people  to  look  at  a  rug,  and  then  to  turn  from  it 
and  tell  what  they  have  seen.  Almost  invariably  not 
one  can  answer  so  simple  a  question  as  "  What  form 
did  the  scroll  take  in  the  broad  border  design  ?  "  In 
analytical  study  one  sees  that  the  meanders  vary  in 
rugs,  and  that  in  no  better  way  can  the  individual 
handling  of  foreign  motifs  be  detected  than  by  follow- 
ing the  development  of  the  methods  of  forming  scroll 
designs  in  rug  borders.  The  Persian  rug  easily  leads 
in  naturalistic  representation  of  the  flowing  vine,  and 
upon  recognition  of  old  Iran  perfection  we  may  base 
our  comparative  study.  Turkish  treatment  in  the 
west,  and  Indian  in  the  east,  show  widely  differing 
means  of  accomplishing  the  same  end.  One  cannot 
always  tell  to  which  division  a  rug  belongs,  because  of 
the  details  of  ornament ;  but  it  is  surprising  how 
quickly  the  mind  responds  to  the  mental  training,  and 
the  eye  to  the  practice  of  looking  for  some  definite 
thing.  In  certain  rugs  we  find  an  easy  adaptation  of 
borrowed  patterns,  while  in  others  it  seems  almost 
impossible  for  the  weaver  to  accommodate  himself  to 
a  new  thought.  The  East  Indian  will  crowd  his  vine 
motif  into  octagonal  form  and  it  is  with  difficulty  that 
most  weavers  outside  of  Persia  find  it  possible  to 
carry  the  undulating  line  through  an  entire  border 
without     breaking    it     up    into     sections.      Archaic, 


MUG-PLATE  XVI 


LADIK  PRAYER-RUG 


MUG-PLATE  XVI 


LADIK  PRAYER-RUG 
Size:  6.11  X4.9 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

"  T/ffHEN  this  make  of  rug  is  so  fine  of  texture 
*  *  and  so  artistically  rich  in  colouring 
effects,  as  this  is,  in  my  judgment  it  is  the  finest 
rug  gem  that  Asiatic  Turkey  ever  produced,  not 
barring  even  the  finest  Ghiordez  rugs.'''' 

Hadji  Ephraim   Benguiat. 

Author's  Description 

On  a  blue  ground  in  the  broad  stripe  of  the 
border  the  Rhodian  lily  in  shades  of  tan,  yellow, 
and  lilac  is  wrought.  The  colour  effect  is  en- 
hanced by  an  outer  stripe  in  which  the  ground 
is  tan  and  an  inner  stripe  of  exquisite  lilac 
which  gives  an  extraordinarily  soft  combina- 
tion of  red,  yellow,  blue  and  violet  tints.  An  un- 
usually good  opportunity  is  here  afforded  to 
study  the  broad  border  pattern  which  is  here 
most  simply  rendered  and  was  evidently  copied 
by  the  weaver  from  archaic  design. 


RUG-PLATE   XVI 


* 

i 


TURKISH    RUGS  105 

classic,  and  tribal  designs  should  be  separated  and 
classified  by  each  individual  student  who  wishes  to 
verify  for  himself  that  which  should  be  accepted  only 
when  it  carries  conviction  with  it.  The  arts  are  inter- 
dependent and  explain  and  interpret  each  other. 
The  history  of  art  motifs  and  their  migrations  is  as 
authentic  as  any  record  of  the  past.  The  antique 
Oriental  rug  (for  only  such  can  serve  as  type  and 
standard)  will  awaken  our  interest  in  the  past  as  few 
art  objects  can,  and  comparison  with  all  other  art 
manifestations  will  help  us  to  comprehend  much  that 
at  first  seems  enigmatical. 

~  »_ ,  Under    the  general  name    of   "  Asia 

asiaflMiior     ,-.  »       n    ♦  .1 

Minor    rugs        collectors    gather    rare 

specimens  of  old  weaves  that  have 
made  the  Anatolian  peninsula  famous,  and  that  have 
so  distinguished  its  fabrics  and  patterns  that  there  are 
certain  features  always  similar  in  them,  though  the 
weavers  of  different  localities  lay  claim  of  priority  to 
either  their  invention  or  adoption.  Such  are  plainly 
traceable  to  archaic  and  symbolic  designs  which  were 
the  common  property  of  all  alike.  This  accounts  for 
the  fact  that  in  all  rug-weaving  localities  at  the  present 
time  recurrence  is  made  to  types  that  once  obtained 
more  universally  than  they  do  now.  These  designs 
come  under  the  head  of  primary  or  symbolic  orna- 
ment, for  almost  invariably  they  bear  testimony  to 
elemental  phenomena,  as  water,  star,  and  sun  motifs 
prevail.  This  is  not  apparent  at  first  glance,  and  one 
may  study  for  years  over  Ghiordes,  Kulah,  Melhaz, 
and  Ladik  specimens  before  being  able  to  see  the 
evidence  of   local   handling  and   craftsmanship   which 


io6  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

differentiates  one  object  from  the  other.  The  main 
features  seem  at  first  so  much  alike  that  we  are 
tempted  to  cease  all  effort  to  subdivide  until  interested 
to  do  so,  because  methods  finally  force  their  pecu- 
liarities upon  us,  and  we  find  that  these  primary 
symbols  have  been  differently  used  by  individual 
workers. 

With  those  Orientals  who  revere  tradition  and 
who  cling  to  pre-Islam  Hebrew  thought  and  condi- 
tions manifested  in  old  design,  or  to  the  Armenian 
handling  of  Christian  truth,  and  to  the  rendering 
throughout  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Arabia,  of  prehis- 
toric conceptions  of  natural  phenomena,  there  is  a 
decided  preference  for  archaic  patterns  which  have 
always  been  used  as  types.  It  is  rarely  now  that  one 
is  able  to  procure  old  specimens  of  ancient  weavings, 
but  such,  when  obtainable,  are  copied  more  or  less 
accurately.  Such  also  are  modified  by  more  modern 
methods  of  portraying  the  same  thing,  the  straight 
line  giving  place  to  the  curve  when  expert  weavers, 
without  meaning  to  do  so,  change  the  entire  appear- 
ance of  the  patterns  by  their  improved  methods  of 
workmanship. 

For  purposes  of  comparison  we  may  divide  Turkish 
rugs  into  three  groups,  showing  three  stages  in  the 
designs  of  Asia  Minor. 

In  the  first  group  we  may  look  for  early  handling 
of  the  meander,  which  figures  as  an  accepted  Ghiordes 
motif.  This  zig-zag  in  the  first,  third,  fifth,  and 
seventh  of  the  border  stripes  in  rare  old  rugs  was  at 
first  a  simple  water-motif  an  elemental  design  based 
on  primary  symbol.     Later,  in  the  second   group,  we 


TURKISH     RUGS  107 

find  the  same  motif  treated  in  a  more  decorative  way 
as  the  "  ribbon,"  and  still  later  the  floral  meander 
marks  the  third  group.  The  two  latter  designs  of 
secondary  import  both  show  development  in  crafts- 
manship, knowledge,  and  beauty,  but  deviation  from 
the  elementary  use  of  symbol.  When  the  technical 
characteristics  that  force  specimens  into  trade  dis- 
tinctions coincide  almost  universally  with  our  own 
conclusions,  we  feel  it  legitimate  to  trust  ourselves 
to  them,  comparing  what  we  have  ourselves  dis- 
covered from  an  Occidental  standpoint  with  that 
which  Orientals  in  full  possession  of  knowledge  of 
the  fabrics  themselves  consider  worthy  of  emphasis, 
and  we  become  convinced  that  local  treatment  of 
design  may  be  detected  as  well  as  the  methods  of 
manufacture. 

The  Oriental  rug  proves  all  that  is  claimed  for  it  to 
be  true  when  it  leads  us  to  look  into  the  history  of 
the  world's  progress  as  it  does  in  Asia  Minor.  Many 
of  the  places  colonized  by  the  Greeks  bear  evidence 
to  the  fact  that  the  early  Dorians  were  sun-worship- 
pers, and  gave  symbolic  patterns  to  potters  and 
weavers  which  have  ever  since  been  perpetuated, 
marking  with  virility  and  beauty  many  forms  that 
had  originally  been  carried  into  Europe  from  the 
Orient.  Scholars  who  are  tracing  the  migration  of 
important  symbols  from  the  places  of  their  birth  are 
trying  to  separate  the  original  thought  from  that 
which  has  been  built  upon  it,  and  an  excellent  oppor- 
tunity is  given  us  to  follow  their  lead  in  the  analysis 
of  Turkish  patterns.  For  example,  the  handling  of 
all  things  Persian  by  the  craftsmen  of  Damascus  and 


io8  THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

Rhodes  has  given  a  strictly  Rhodian  style  to  which 
we  must  attribute  many  of  the  textile  patterns  that 
are  deemed  important  by  native  students  of  Oriental 
art.  Tracing  the  vicissitudes  of  the  small  island  of 
Rhodes,  where  early  sun-worshippers  gave  to  designs 
the  wave,  water,  and  various  sun  motifs,  it  is  easy  to 
note  the  changes  brought  about  by  the  fact  that  first 
one  and  then  another  conquering  power  controlled  its 
developing  art.  Greek,  Roman,  Byzantine,  Venetian, 
Persian,  and  Turkish  influences  made  Rhodian  art  a 
combination  of  all  others,  and  yet  its  mongrel  nature 
assumed  an  individuality  which  has  so  marked  its 
styles  that  Rhodian  designs,  copied  in  the  neighbour- 
ing seacoast  towns  of  Asia  Minor  may  easily  be  dis- 
tinguished as  different  from  any  other  rendering  of 
distinctive  designs  that  have  in  other  ways  reached 
the  western  shores  of  Asia.  Thus  old  Rhodian  inter- 
pretations of  Greek  classic  designs  in  many  of  the 
wave  patterns  to  which  we  have  alluded  have  been 
adopted  as  borders  in  old  Asia  Minor  rugs,  and  from 
these  later  styles  have  evolved. 

It  is  not  claiming  too  much  for  the  potter's  art  to 
assert  that  without  it  we  should  be  deprived  of  many 
of  the  most  beautiful  conceptions  of  master  artists, 
and  of  the  ability  to  place  designs  accurately. 

Under  the  familiar  names  Ghiordes,  Kulah,  Melhaz 
(Milassa-Melace),  and  Ladik  we  may  subdivide  the 
Turkish  division  of  the  rug-chart,  leaving  to  later 
study  the  less  well  known  styles  and  types.  With 
rugs  in  our  hands  to  examine,  how  may  we  distinguish 
between  the  products  of  these  four  important  centres? 
Antique  specimens  alone  avail   us  as  standards,  and 


BOKHARA   (TEKKE    TURCoMAS)  RUG 
Loaned  by  Tiffany  Studios 


■ 


AL    I  jOK 

n  style  to  which 

ile  patterns  that 

lents  of  Oriental 

the  small  island  of 

;des,  v  tve  to  designs 

Hie  un  motifs,  it  is  easy  to 

note  it  by  the  fact  that  first 

ng  power  controlled  its 

Byzantine,  Venetian, 

made  Rhodian  art  a 

id  yet  its  mongrel  nature 

•■hidi    has   so  marked   its 

\yS\\  (\Rfctt  vAA'A^e^^TO^&ghbour- 

goifow&i  \vu«\vi:  \s$ine»omay  easily  be  dis- 

1 ..    .inv  other   rendering  of 

ways  .reached 
Thus  old  Rhodian  inter- 
ne  designs  in    many   of  the 
have  alluded  have  been 
[inor  rugs,  and  from 

- 
It  for  the   potter's  art  to 

1  deprived  of  many 
master  artists, 
and  of  curately. 

Kulah,  Melhaz 

subdivide    the 

I    iving    to    later 

i    types.     With 

e  distinguish 

rant  centres? 

lards,  and 


EST        ^     ' 


P21  i' 


•ir-I 


imsiiM^i^ydyMy 


'»?>*  « 


lAAftJkfti 


30C 


.&!$&& 


,  <> 


tail]    *»»^       ,-<«  ~rH**f 

30  ^"^  s.-^  ^-^  CS  "s"^  ^ 


N^ 


TURKISH     RUGS 


109 


such  only  should  we  consider  while  our  opinions  are 
in  a  formative  condition. 

ObtOrbeS  AS  Prayer-ruSs  the    most    beautiful  of 

TRims  antique    Ghiordes    weavings    have    come 

down  to  us  through  the  years,  and  a  few 
of  their  main  points  are  at  once  noticeable  ;  as,  for 
example,   the  prevalence  of  many  borders,  the    high 


OUTLINE  MAI' OF  WESTERN  ASIA   MINOR. 

prayer-niche,  the  plain    colour    of    the  field,    and  the 
pliable  quality  of  the  fabric  itself. 

There  are  two  ways  of  approaching  a  rug  for  study  : 
one  is  to  look  upon  it  from  a  distance  as  it  lies  on  the 
floor  a  number  of  feet  away  from  us  or  hangs  on  the 
opposite  wall  ;  the  other  is  to  stand  in  the  centre  of 
the  object  and   look  down    upon    and    into    the    pile, 


no  THEOR1ENTALRUGBOOK 

allowing  the  thought  gradually  to  extend  from  the 
centre  to  its  outer  limits,  studying  in  turn  each  of  the 
borders  and  their  relation  to  the  whole  make  up  of 
the  fabric.  For  proper  conception  of  the  plan  of  old 
Ghiordes  rugs  it  is  essential  to  follow  the  latter 
method  and  look  down  upon  the  design.  In  the  first 
place,  when  thus  examined  the  mottled  appearance  of 
the  plain  surface  shows  rare  beauty  and  a  lustrous 
liquid  quality.  The  borders  that  surround  the  central 
panel  should  each  in  turn  be  seriously  considered,  as 
in  some  of  the  smaller  stripes  there  are  flowing  an- 
tique designs,  while  the  broad  main  border,  generally 
speaking,  is  rectilinear,  filling  an  imaginary  square 
with  squarely  drawn  flower  and  leaf  forms,  so  that  in 
combination  the  flowers  and  leaves  form  distinct 
designs  that  are  repeated  again  and  again  all  around 
the  rug.  Though  this  style  of  ornamentation  is  cop- 
ied in  different  localities,  it  is  always  recognized  as  a 
Ghiordes  feature.  The  colours  of  antique  Ghiordes 
specimens  defy  description.  In  the  most  carefully 
made  rugs  the  mottled  effect  of  some  of  the  solid 
coloured  centres  is  produced  by  combining  three  or 
four  strands  of  fine  wool  of  varying  shades  of  the  same 
colour  in  each  knot  tied,  and  blues,  light  greens,  and 
hay  colours,  with  reds  of  gem-like  clearness  and  white 
of  ivory  tint,  mingle  and  blend  rather  than  contrast 
with  each  other,  so  that,  though  there  is  no  confusion, 
there  is  not  the  absolute  distinctness  that  we  find  in 
the  productions  of  the  more  easterly  provinces  of  the 
Turkish  empire.  This  it  is  well  to  note,  for  oftentimes 
at  first  glance  this  recognition  of  the  distribution  of 
colour  will  lead  to  the  proper  classification  of  fabrics. 


MUG-PLATE  XVII 


KULAH  RUG 


RUG-PLATE  XVII 


KULAH  RUG 

Size:  9.10  X4.3 
Loaned  by  Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

"  jpUGS  of  this  weave  are  "known  as  Kxdah  rtigs  in 
jtv  Anatolia;  but  this  specimen,  being  an  original, 
teas  made  in  the  island  of  Rhodes  under  the  same 
influences  that  caused  the  production  of  the  famous 
Rhodian  tiles  and  plates.  For  centuries  it  teas  in 
a  mosque  in  Kulah  (a  great  rug-manufacturing 
centre)  and  has  been  reproduced  by  almost  every  ca- 
pable rug-weaver.  In  1878  many  reproductions  could 
be  obtained;  but  not  until  my  last  trip  to  the  Orient 
in  1900  could  I  induce  the  possessors  of  these  beautiful 
rugs  to  part  ivith  any  of  them  for  my  collection." 

Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat. 

Author's  Description 

A  novice  is  obliged  to  look  very  carefully  at  the 
floral  ornamentation  of  antique  Kulah  rugs  before  be- 
ing able  to  distinguish  them  from  others.  We  look  to 
these  antique  specimens  for  explanations  many  and 
various,  for  in  them  are  to  be  found  evidences  of  a 
definite  intention  on  the  part  of  master-weavers  to 
hand  down  classic  and  archaic  designs.  To  our  ana- 
lytical study  they  render  slight  assistance  by  any 
confession  of  distinguishing  features.  These  antique 
Kulahs  trace  their  ancestry  to  the  island  of  Rhodes, 
and  occasionally  in  these  older  weavings  a  motif  will 
stand  out  as  strictly  speaking  Rhodian ;  such,  for 
example,  as  the  highly  ornate  rendering  of  the  pink 
and  the  rose  in  flower  forms,  and  a  pectdiar  semi- 
geometric  scroll  in  the  main  border  which  is  evidently 
intended  to  serve  the  purpose  of  the  vine  in  the 
Persian  designs  from  which  many  of  the  Rhodian 
patterns  were  copied.  It  seems  as  iho ugh  an  accepted 
method  of  producing  this  meander  effect  antedated 
the  use  of  it  in  the  Rhodian  fabrics,  and  u-as  copied 
without  regard  to  whether  or  not  it  resembled  a  vine, 
for  flowers  project  from  it  in  awkward  fashion,  as 
though  quite  unrelated  to  it. 


RUU-PLATK   XVII 


TURKISH    RUGS  in 

The  outline  divisions  of  Ghiordes  rugs  differ  in 
form  from  other  prayer-rugs  in  that  at  the  base  and 
above  the  prayer-niche  there  is  commonly  a  panel  into 
which  is  crowded  an  abbreviation  of  the  pattern  in 
the  wide  border  stripe.  These  panels  are  generally 
surrounded  by  their  own  special  border,  which  may  or 
may  not  be  like  the  narrow  stripe  that  immediately 
surrounds  the  field. 

It  is  in  Ghiordes  rugs  that  collectors  find  their 
rarest  specimens  of  the  mosaic  style  of  weaving  so 
greatly  admired,  it  being  a  time-honoured  custom 
among  the  weavers  to  cut  the  knot-ends  closely,  and 
thus  to  preserve  the  semblance  of  well-worn  fabrics 
that  have  been  handed  down  as  copies.  In  old  Ghi- 
ordes rugs  the  warp  and  woof  were  fine  in  quality,  and 
the  materials  were  carefully  spun  and  dyed,  the  sel- 
vages being  so  well  and  evenly  completed  that  the 
rugs  were  symmetrical  and  shapely  to  a  degree.  The 
number  of  knots  to  the  square  inch  varied  from  36  to 
81,  and  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  might  be  easily 
counted  on  the  face  of  the  rug  on  account  of  the  close 
cut  pile,  which  exposed  the  knot.  In  some  old  rugs 
intended  for  sacred  purposes,  use  is  made  of  the 
colour  green  allowed  only  to  those  in  high  office  in 
direct  line  from  the  Prophet.  Such  green  as  seems  to 
have  borrowed  its  translucency  from  the  deep  sea, 
and  its  shadings  from  mosses  and  grasses,  is  seen  to 
perfection  in  some  of  the  old  Ghiordes  weaves,  though 
a  tendency  to  surface  fading  has  softened  the  colours 
so  that  the  sea  shades  obtain  where  the  leaf  tints 
disappear,  and  an  aquamarine  of  unusual  beauty  is  the 
result.     There    is    adherence    to    the    three   primary 


ii2  THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

shades,  red,  yellow,  and  blue,  in  all  Ghiordes  rugs  ; 
but  so  soft  are  they  that,  while  reds  remain  red  and 
do  not  favour  the  crimson  hues  of  other  localities, 
they  are  so  held  in  abeyance  by  the  other  tints 
employed  that  they  are  prized  for  their  superior  merit. 
So  with  the  blues  and  yellows:  the  former  a  blue 
heavily  laden  with  a  whitish  quality  that,  though  it 
lightens,  at  the  same  time  it  preserves  the  primary 
tone;  and  the  yellows  do  not  assume  the  shades  of 
hay,  tan,  and  sun  colour  that  some  Kulah  rugs  affect. 
Altogether  the  rugs  of  Ghiordes  name  and  make  easily 
take  rank  among  the  finest  of  Asia  Minor  products, 
and  as  such  may  serve  as  standards  of  both  merit 
and  style. 

IkUlab  Kulah  rugs  differ  in  a  few    minor  points 

IRuaS  ^r°m  Ghiordes  and  yet  their  peculiarities 
make  it  easy  to  distinguish  between  the 
products  of  the  two  places  so  near  each  other  that  it 
is  surprising  that  any  individuality  at  all  has  been  pre- 
served. Ancient  traditions  in  weave  and  design  are 
in  Kulah  rugs,  as  in  the  Ghiordes  products,  best  pre- 
served in  prayer-rugs  in  which  the  prayer-niche  is  not 
as  high  as  in  the  Ghiordes  and  is  often  serrated  in  a 
way  that  bears  no  resemblance  to  the  ziV-zae  outline 
around  the  field  and  prayer-niche  in  Ghiordes  rugs, 
which  is  distinctly  a  water  motif.  In  place  of  the 
wide  central  stripe  a  number  of  very  narrow  ones 
make  up  Kulah  borders.  Where  these  features  are 
not  noticeable  it  generally  follows  that  neighbouring 
devices  have  been'  borrowed,  and  that  in  describing 
specimens  the  prayer-niche  is  spoken  of  as  having 
'  tall  and    modified  angles  like   the  Ghiordes  "  or  as 


TURKISH     RUGS  113 

showing  some  characteristic  feature  of  Ladik  or 
Konieh  weave.  The  careful  cataloguing  of  Oriental 
rugs  for  auction  sales  and  trade  purposes  has  famil- 
iarized even  those  least  interested  with  a  vernacular 
which  even  five  years  ago  did  not  exist,  and  the  main 
points  of  interest  are  now  known  to  all  who  care  to 
make  use  of  them  for  the  furtherance  of  their  studies. 
It  is  difficult  to  keep  types  firmly  and  definitely  in 
mind  when  individual  rugs  present  such  mixtures  and 
adaptations  that  it  is  hopeless  to  try  to  find  for  them 
any  more  definite  name  than  the  general  one  of  the 
main  division.  Discouragement  need  not  attend  study 
and  effort  if  one  will  only  be  content  with  ability  to 
classify  broadly  until  details  make  themselves  evident 
and  paramount.  The  most  perplexing  of  old  Kulahs 
are  those  which  were  made  in  close  imitation  of 
antique  productions  which  in  both  form  and  design 
are  strongly  indicative  of  pre-Mohammedan  and  Per- 
sian influences.  From  these  old  so-called  Kulahs 
certain  motifs  have  been  adopted  by  all  Asia  Minor 
weavers.  Great  effort  is  now  being  made  by  Orientals 
to  obtain  rare  old  specimens  of  these  weaves  which, 
judged  by  design,  would  be  classed  as  "  Kulah," 
"  Ghiordes,"  or  "  Ladik."  It  is  because  of  the  great 
difficulties  attendant  upon  all  effort  to  say  positively 
that  certain  things  were  made  in  certain  places  at 
definite  times  that  the  more  conservative  of  judges 
group  under  the  comprehensive  heading  of  "Asia 
Minor  "  these  rare  old  rugs  which  bear  the  same  rela- 
tion to  Turkish  productions  as  "  Iran  "  rugs  to  the 
output  of  the  Persian  looms.  In  colour  the  reds  in 
old  Kulah  rugs  are  far  from  primary,  and  yet  are  not 


ii4  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

of  the  deep  crimson  so  offensive  in  the  modern  pro- 
ducts of  the  dyer's  ingenuity  and  experiment.  A  test 
of  the  beautiful  red  best  known  to  those  who  aire  for 
Melhaz  and  Rhodian  products  is  one  that  may  be  care- 
fully applied  by  novices  in  their  analytical  study.  If 
the  thought  of  "  magenta  "  comes  to  mind  at  first 
glance  when  examining  a  specimen,  immediately  class 
the  rug  as  moderately  modern,  certainly  not  as  an 
antique.  There  is  something  so  convincing  about  the 
quality  of  red  which  as  "crimson"  or  "rose"  traces 
its  ancestry  back  to  a  time  prior  to  the  "  magenta  " 
period,  that  one  soon  becomes  susceptible  to  slight 
variations  that  make  all  the  difference  in  the  world 
between  artistic  and  crude  results. 

. .  In    the    most    southwesterly  province  of 

"*  Asia  Minor,  Caria  or  Karia,  many  rugs  are 
IKUQS.  made  which  bear  the  general  name  of 
Melez  (Melhaz  or  Melace)  because  in  the  town  of 
Melassa  the  productions  of  neighbouring  villages  are 
sold,  and  as  is  often  the  case,  the  name  of  the  market 
is  given  to  all  things  brought  there  for  disposal.  It  has 
become  quite  customary  to  look  for  good  effects  in  the 
colouring  of  old  Melhaz  rugs,  and,  while  the  weavings 
are  not  indicative  of  the  refinement  displayed  by  the 
craftsmen  of  the  Kulah  and  Ghiordes  districts,  there 
is  a  certain  virility  and  strength  about  the  handling 
of  materials,  colours,  and  designs  which  appeal  very 
strongly  to  one  in  search  of  these  increasingly  scarce 
qualities.  A  very  careful  distinction  is  sometimes 
made  between  the  products  of  Asia  Minor  woven  and 
used  by  the  Greeks,  and  those  made  by  workers  of 
Hebrew  ancestry. 


BUG-PLATE  XVIII 


A  SIXTEENTH-CENTURY  GHIORDEZ  RUG 


RUG-FLATE  XVIII 


A  SIXTEENTH-CENTURY  GHIORDEZ  RUQ 


RUG-PLATE   X\  111 


TURKISH    RUGS  115 

These  fine  points,  which  are  to  be  respected  when 
we  grasp  the  fact  that  they  exist,  are  most  valuable  in 
analytical  study  of  pattern.  While  yet  it  is  not  too 
late  to  do  so,  it  would  be  most  helpful  to  have 
gathered  together  in  some  place  where  they  could 
be  carefully  studied,  rugs  and  carpets  that  educated 
Orientals  themselves  will  vouch  for.  European  judg- 
ment is  often  based  upon  the  verdict  of  some  abso- 
lutely uneducated  Turk,  Persian,  or  Chinese  of  the 
lowest  class,  who,  knowing  nothing  about  the  folk- 
lore or  traditions  of  their  countries,  simply  testify 
to  the  local  habits  of  their  own  isolated  home.  Under 
the  ban,  oftentimes,  of  some  proselyting  religion 
which  has  made  them  afraid  to  express  inherited 
beliefs,  their  testimony  is  not  to  be  relied  upon. 
There  is  much  distress  among  those  Orientals  in 
Europe  and  America  who  are  willing  to  sacrifice  even 
opportunity  to  increase  their  wealth  if  they  may  in 
some  way  gather  together  objects  made  by  their  own 
people  which  will  establish  truths  that  seem  destined 
to  oblivion.  From  Asia  Minor  across  the  entire  con- 
tinent to  Japan  in  the  far  East,  the  truth  is  departing 
from  real  native  art  because  of  false  Occidental  opin- 
ions concerning  it  ;  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  it 
seems  important  for  us  to  study  objects  themselves 
analytically,  ascertaining  what  they  are  like,  and  how 
they  appear  as  they  come  to  us  like  flotsam  and  jetsam 
after  the  great  migration  of  other  people  to  our  land. 
Well  may  we  protect  the  traditions  that  are  all  too 
swiftly  passing  away. 

In  Turkish    carpets  of    large   size    many    styles   are 
grouped   under  the    trade    name  "  Ouchak  "  in   which 


n6  THE    ORIENTAL     RUG    BOOK 

modern  methods  are  observable.  Often  the  wool 
used  in  the  warp  threads  resembles  worsted  rather 
than  yarn,  while  large  surfaces  are  left  plain,  both  to 
suit  European  ideas  of  preserving  single-colour  effects 
in  furnishing,  and  because  it  requires  less  manual 
labour  to  make  solid  fields  than  to  introduce  or- 
nament. 

Almost  without  recourse  to  our  maps  we  might 
locate  the  weavers  of  a  great  number  of  the  rugs 
which  come  to  us  as  Turkish,  but  which  do  not 
resemble,  save  in  points  of  weaving,  the  productions 
of  western  Asia  Minor.  Nomadic  influence  is  so 
evident  in  design  that  we  should  naturally  attribute 
them  to  the  rude  mountaineers  and  villagers.  As 
"  Yuruck,"  as  "  Mohair,"  and  as  "  Kurdish,"  we  meet 
these  rugs  in  classifications,  and,  while  differing  in  cer- 
tain ways  from  each  other  and  from  textiles  made 
further  west,  there  are  many  points  which  mark  them 
as  Turkish  ;  while  rigid  adherence  to  tradition  and 
the  manifestation  of  belief,  in  pattern,  shows  the 
weavers  to  have  been  beyond  the  limits  of  the  influ- 
ences that  have  produced  so  much  that  is  mongrel  in 
design.  One  can  readily  tell,  when  studying  the  rugs 
made  by  Mohammedans,  to  which  sect  the  patriarch 
of  the  tribe  belonged,  by  the  choice  made  between 
patterns  which  exclude,  and  those  which  retain,  animal 
forms  ;  it  being  clearly  understood  that  if  one  makes 
an  image  of  any  living  creature  he  will  be  called  upon 
at  the  judgment-day  to  endow  the  same  with  a  soul. 
Geometric  and  naturalistic  ornament  without  addi- 
tion of  human  or  animal  forms  may  safely  be  con- 
sidered   as   sJiiah   or   orthodox    Mohammedan.      We 


TURKISH    RUGS  117 

have  yet  to  learn  more  of  the  rugs  of  Syria  and 
Arabia,  which  are  often  made  in  the  purest  tribal 
styles. 

At  the  great  fairs  held  on  feast-days,  in  various 
places  in  the  district  known  best  to  us  as  the  scene  of 
Biblical  events,  many  rugs  are  disposed  of,  and  agents 
from  trade  centres  secure  the  best  of  them,  which  are 
packed  in  bales  and  sent  to  Constantinople,  whence, 
with  rugs  of  better  grade,  they  find  their  way  to 
Occidental  countries.  Occasionally  these  odd  bits 
may  be  picked  up,  and  they  rarely  fail  to  interest 
those  who  are  ever  on  the  alert  for  traces  of  individ- 
uality in  rug-weaving.  The  patterns  that  distinguish 
these  crude  specimens  are  called  "  memory  designs," 
as  they  are  handed  down  from  one  weaver  to  another, 
from  mother  to  child.  Frequently  some  definite 
patch  or  pattern  testifies  to  the  fact  that  the  weaver, 
fearing  the  evil  eye,  has  taken  pains  to  provide  some 
charm  against  disastrous  consequences,  for,  if  the 
object  were  too  beautiful,  the  eye  of  envy  might  be 
turned  upon  it,  and  so  the  spot  is  arranged  to  avert 
that  evil  eye.  There  are  certain  chosen  emblems 
that,  worn  as  charms,  are  supposed  to  be  most  effica- 
cious as  talismans  ;  among  these  are  trinkets  made  in 
the  shape  of  horns,  human  hands  with  the  fingers  in 
special  positions,  faces  of  animals,  small  pieces  of 
metal  and  stone,  and  even  cotton  cloth, — these  are 
cut  into  significant  geometric  forms  which  have  had 
origin  in  ancient  belief  and  have  been  copied  again 
and  again  in  patterns  woven  or  embroidered  in  Syria. 
In  the  products  of  the  seacoast  towns  on  the  east  of 
the  Mediterranean  one  meets  a  mingling  of   Egyptian 


nS  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

motifs  in  the  ornamentation  of  fabrics.  We  find  bird, 
beetle,  and  flower  designs  of  extreme  interest,  and  all 
sorts  of  sun,  star,  and  moon  emblems  which  are  skil- 
fully wrought  by  weavers  and  embroiderers  who  have 
not  the  faintest  idea  of  the  legendary  art  they  are 
perpetuating. 

2lrabfait  .Occasionally    an     "Arab    rug"    finds 

1P  its  way  to    us    as    we   are   pursuing  our 

analytical  study  of  objects  in  this  land 
so  far  away  from  the  desert  where  the  Arab  camel- 
driver  founded  the  religion  that  has  made  the  name 
of  Mohammed  of  world-wide  import.  Though  puzzled 
by  its  crude  workmanship,  our  interest  is  whetted 
when  we  are  finally  led  by  it  into  more  critical  study 
of  Arabia  as  the  home  of  tent-dwelling  people,  now  as 
always;  and  memories  of  our  childish  imaginations 
accentuate  our  interest  in  the  caravan-traversed  pen- 
insula where  once  the  Children  of  Israel  wandered 
for  forty  years.  We  turn  with  renewed  interest  to 
Old  Testament  accounts  of  tents  and  tabernacles,  and 
to  our  amazement  find  much  which,  critically  read, 
carries  us  along  to  a  comprehensive  realization  that 
the  ancient  Hebrews  preserved  for  modern  art  more 
than  is  commonly  supposed,  and  we  learn  from 
orthodox  descendants  of  the  Patriarchs  that  in  Tal- 
mudic  and  Kabbalistic  traditions  we  may  find  ex- 
planations which  the  student  of  art  has  loner  been 
seeking.  Such,  for  example,  is  the  six-pointed  star, 
known  as  the  shield  of  David  worn  as  a  talisman  by 
many  who  have  not  even  questioned  its  meaning. 
This  has  furnished  a  whole  system   of  religious  belief 


TURKISH     RUGS  119 

for  peoples  who  have  migrated  into  Europe,  and  in 
various  places  have  dwelt  and  are  dwelling  as  gypsies 
and  wanderers  who  profess  to  read  in  geometric 
forms  the  fates  that  control  human  lives.  In  macuc 
squares,  magic  circles,  magic  star-forms  built  on  the 
equilateral  triangle,  are  many  designs  that  show  a 
belief  in  the  Divine  answer  to  Man's  thought  when 
under  the  silent  sky  he  erects  his  rude  altar  and 
awaits  the  recognition  of  Deity. 

Of  modern  Asia  Minor  carpets  we  find  it  safe  to 
say  very  little,  as  they  defy  the  purposes  of  the 
student  who  wishes  to  analyze  patterns,  for  weavers 
are  catering  to  the  demand  of  the  present  day  for 
"  Turkish  carpets  warranted  to  fit  any  space  in  Occi- 
dental homes."  However  good  such  are, — and  many 
of  them  are  thoroughly  well  made  and  sold  by 
reliable  firms, —  they  do  not  come  within  the  limits 
of  our  avowed  purpose  of  studying  rugs  as  things 
of  sentiment  and  for  their  art  value.  Until  we  have 
made  ourselves  thoroughly  acquainted  with  all  that 
we  can  discover  in  the  study  of  types  in  which  are  the 
authentic  renderings  of  historic  design  of  symbolic 
significance,  we  should  not  trust  ourselves  to  do  more 
with  the  productions  of  modern  human  machines  than 
to  buy  them  for  utilitarian  purposes  as  most  desirable 
floor-coverings.  To  those  who  handle  and  dispose  of 
such  either  in  the  Orient  where  they  are  made,  or  in 
any  of  the  great  markets  of  the  world,  we  may  safely 
look  for  much  information  concerning  trade  classifica- 
tions, and  we  may  unreservedly  admire  the  well- 
organized  effort  to  secure  the  best  work  from  weavers 


i2o  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

who,  if  not  backed  by  capital  and  controlled  by  intelli- 
gence, would  be  unable  to  supply  the  demands  of 
Western  buyers.  But  we  cannot,  however,  hope  to 
study  ornament  in  its  purity  in  these  modern  rugs, 
however  beautiful  they  may  be,  unless  we  are  so 
familiar  with  types  in  their  purity  that  we  can  distin- 
guish for  ourselves  how  faithfully  they  have  been 
adhered  to  in  the  textile  designs  of  to-day.  When 
we  know  for  a  certainty  that  designs  are  being  fur- 
nished by  young  men  and  women  in  London  and 
New  York,  which  are  sold  to  agents  and  distributed 
freely  to  Asiatic  weavers,  we  may  well  hesitate  to 
base  an  opinion  on  rugs  as  manifestations  of  thought. 
TEbe  travel  Among  the  most  interesting  of  Mo- 

ot tbe  hammedan    observances  is  the  annual 

1bOl£  Carpet  pilgrimage  from  Cairo  to  Mecca  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  there  the  covering  for  the 
"  Kaaba,"  or  "  House  of  the  Sacred  Black  Stone."  In 
the  centre  of  the  court-yard  of  the  mosque  at  Mecca 
stands  the  sacred  building,  which  is  so  revered  by  the 
followers  of  the  Prophet  that  each  loyal  soul  desires  to 
accomplish  the  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Place  once 
during  a  life  time.  One  who  has  made  this  journey 
is  allowed  to  call  himself  henceforth  "  Hadji,"  and 
the  performance  is  one  for  which  the  pilgrim  is  revered. 
Abraham  and  Adam  share  the  honour  of  having 
received  from  the  angel  Gabriel  the  small  sacred  stone, 
as  a  gift  from  Paradise,  to  contain  which  the  original 
temple  was  built.  Traditions  are  attached  to  the  re- 
building, once  in  so  often,  of  this  holy  edifice,  and 
every  detail  of  its  history  is  treasured  and  has  been 
immortalized  in  the  ornamental  art  of  Islam. 


< 
u 
u 


< 


TURKISH    RUGS  r2i 

The  stone,  about  6X8  inches,  which  was  originally 
white,  is  now  black  because  of  the  stain  of  sin  imposed 
upon  it  through  centuries  of  touch  of  unworthy  hands, 
and  the  pilgrims  make  it  a  duty  to  circumambulate  it 
on  account  of  its  magic  power  to  remove  all  taint  of 
sin. 

The  outline  form  and  the  various  features  of  the 
mosque  at  Mecca,  the  "  Kaaba,"  the  sacred  well,  etc., 
furnish  now,  as  they  always  have  done  popular  designs 
for  textiles.  Anything  and  everything  about  that 
which  happens  within  the  precincts  of  the  Holy  Place 
is  of  moment  to  those  whose  whole  lives  have  been 
spent  in  anticipation  of  the  journey  thither,  and  whose 
future  will  be  blessed  by  its  accomplishment. 

The  covering  for  the  Kaaba  is  renewed  every  year. 
It  is  made  of  a  heavy  black  silk  damask  lined  with 
cotton,  as  it  is  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  Koran  to 
use  anything  which  is  made  entirely  of  silk.  About 
the  covering,  which  is  called  the  "  Kiswah  ",  is  a  broad 
band  decorated  with  inscriptions  in  gold  and  green, 
and  this  highly  ornamented  fabric  is  carried  in  state 
from  one  part  of  Cairo,  where  it  is  made  by  the  same 
family  year  after  year,  to  another  part  of  the  city, 
where  it  remains  until  entirely  completed,  and  thence 
it  is  transported  on  the  back  of  a  sacred  camel  to  the 
Holy  City.  The  old  covering,  which  is  each  year 
removed  to  make  place  for  the  new  one,  is  cut  into 
scraps  by  those  who  have  the  matter  in  charge,  and 
these  are  sold  or  given  away  to  the  pilgrims,  who  so 
highly  esteem  the  treasures  that  they  carry  the  bits 
back  to  their  homes,  where  they  serve  as  markers  for 
their  Korans  or  as  ornaments  in  their  turbans.      Many 


i22  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

votive  offerings  are  sent  by  dignitaries  to  the  mosque 
at  Mecca — carpets  of  rare  beauty,  and  mosque  panels  of 
various  sorts.  The  designs  in  some  of  these  beautiful 
rues  and  embroideries  have  been  copied  and  reproduced 
through  the  years,  and  some  of  the  choicest  relics 
have,  from  time  to  time,  been  sold  at  a  price.  The 
commercial  opportunities  afforded  by  the  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca  have  always  been  most  highly  prized,  and 
large  revenues  have  been  gathered  from  the  pilgrims 
by  those  in  charge  of  the  mosque  and  sacred  objects, 
as  well  as  by  those  who  go  to  meet  the  enthusiasts  at 
different  points  along  the  route,  where  they  may  buy 
and  sell  to  their  own  great  profit. 

All  through  the  Orient,  pilgrimages  are  made  to 
one  or  another  of  the  various  holy  cities  made  sacred 
because  of  the  presence  of  the  tomb  of  some  saint,  or 
on  account  of  some  great  happening  in  the  past. 
There  are  seven  places  considered  sacred  to  the  pious 
Mohammedan,  and  to  them  pilgrims  journey  at  all 
times. 

"  In  the  order  of  their  sanctity  are  Mecca,  where  Mohammed 
was  born;  Medina,  the  burial  place  of  the  Prophet;  Nejef,  on  the 
Euphrates,  where  Ali  was  martyred  ;  Kerbela,  on  the  banks  of 
the  same  great  river,  where  the  earth  is  so  sacred  that  bodies  are 
brought  by  caravans  for  burial  there  in  hundreds  every  year ; 
Kazemein,  the  village  close  to  Bagdad,  where  stands  one  of  the 
loveliest  of  all  mosques;  Meshed,  the  holiest  of  all  the  cities  of 
Persia,  with  its  glorious  golden-domed  mosque  ;  Samara,  in  south- 
east Russia,  reckoned  sacred  by  the  western  Tartars ;  and  Kum, 
a  village  in  Persia,  near  Teheran,  revered  by  all  Persians,  but 
little  known  to  the  outside  world."* 


*"St.  James  Gazette." 


TURKISH    RUGS  123 

At  the  present  day,  modern  methods  of  travel  and 
changes  of  one  kind  and  another  have  made  it  less 
possible  than  formerly  to  speak  with  confidence  about 
that  which  occurs,  for  it  is  not  now  true  that  one  year 
but  repeats  and  perpetuates  the  past.  Very  few 
Europeans  are  supposed  to  have  ever  gone  on  the 
annual  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  one  of  these  Sir  Rich- 
ard Burton  has  given  us  the  most  interesting  account 
of  what  he  witnessed  after  the  arrival  of  the  caravan  at 
the  end  of  its  long  journey.  Robertson,  the  royal 
historiographer,  in  the  following  words,  describes  the 
caravan  travel  of  a  century  ago  : 

"  I  will  now  enter  into  a  detailed  description  of  the  caravans 
which  visit  Mecca.  The  first  is  the  caravan  which  takes  its  depar- 
ture from  Cairo  in  Egypt,  and  the  other  from  Damascus  in  Syria, 
and  I  select  these  both  because  they  are  the  most  considerable  and 
because  they  are  described  by  authors  of  undoubted  credit  who 
had  the  best  opportunities  of  receiving  full  information  concerning 
them.  The  former  is  composed  not  only  of  pilgrims  from  every 
part  of  Egypt,  but  of  those  which  arrive  from  all  the  small 
Mohammedan  states  on  the  African  coast  of  the  Mediterranean, 
from  the  Empire  of  Morocco,  and  even  from  the  Negro  kingdoms. 
When  assembled,  the  caravan  consists  of  at  least  50,000  persons, 
and  the  number  of  camels  employed  in  carrying  water,  provisions, 
and  merchandise  is  still  greater.  The  journey,  which  in  going 
from  Cairo  and  returning  thither  is  not  completed  in  less  than  a 
hundred  days,  is  performed  wholly  by  land  ;  and,  as  the  route  lies 
mostly  through  sandy  deserts  or  barren  uninhabited  wilds  which 
seldom  afford  any  subsistence,  and  where  often  no  sources  of 
water  can  be  found,  the  pilgrims  always  undergo  much  fatigue,  and 
sometimes  must  endure  incredible  hardships. 

"The  caravan  from  Damascus,  composed  of  pilgrims  from 
almost  every  province  of  the  Turkish  empire,  is  little  inferior  to  the 
former  in  number,  and  the  commerce  which  it  carries  is  hardly  less 
valuable.      This  pilgrimage  was  performed  in  the  year  1741    by 


i24  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

Khojeh  Abdulkurreem.  He  gives  the  usual  route  from  Damascus 
to  Mecca,  computed  by  hours,  the  common  mode  of  reckoning  a 
journey  in  the  East  through  countries  little  frequented.  It  is  a 
singular  proof  of  the  predatory  spirit  of  the  Arabs,  that,  although 
all  their  independent  tribes  are  zealous  Mohammedans,  yet  they 
make  no  scruple  of  plundering  the  caravans  of  pilgrims  while 
engaged  in  performing  one  of  the  most  indispensable  duties  of 
their  religion. 

"  Great  as  these  caravans  are,  we  must  not  suppose  that  all  the 
pilgrims  who  visit  Mecca  belong  to  them  ;  such  considerable 
additions  are  received  from  Persia,  from  every  province  of 
Indostan  and  the  countries  to  the  east  of  it,  from  Abyssinia  and 
from  various  states  on  the  southern  coast  of  Africa,  and  from  all 
parts  of  Arabia,  that  when  the  whole  are  assembled  they  have 
been  computed  to  amount  to  200,000.  In  some  years  the  number 
is  farther  increased  by  small  bands  of  pilgrims  from  several  interior 
provinces  of  Africa,  the  names  and  situations  of  which  are  just 
beginning  to  be  known  in  Europe. 

"  Besides  the  great  caravan  which  proceeds  to  Cairo,  and  is 
.joined  by  pilgrims  from  every  part  of  Africa,  there  are  caravans 
which  have  no  object  but  commerce,  which  set  out  from  Fez, 
Algiers,  Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  other  states  on  the  sea-coast,  and 
penetrate  far  into  the  interior  country.  Some  of  them  take  no  less 
than  fifty  days  to  reach  the  place  of  their  destination.  As  both  the 
time  of  their  outset  and  their  route  are  known,  they  are  met  by  the 
people  of  all  the  countries  through  which  they  travel,  who  trade 
with  them.  Indian  goods  of  every  kind  form  a  considerable 
article  in  this  traffic. 

"  As  the  journeys  of  the  caravans  which  are  purely  commercial 
do  not  commence  at  stated  seasons,  and  their  routes  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  convenience  or  fancy  of  the  merchants  of  whom  they  are 
composed,  a  description  cannot  be  given  of  them  with  the  same 
degree  of  accuracy  as  of  the  great  caravans  that  visit  Mecca.  But 
by  attending  to  the  accounts  of  some  authors,  and  the  occasional 
hints  of  others,  sufficient  information  may  be  gathered  to  satisfy 
us  that  the  circulation  of  Eastern  goods  by  these  caravans  is  very 
extensive. 


t-l 

z 

w 

a, 
w 

■Jl 

o 


< 
w 


Pi 

OS 
r-1 


Pi 

o 

P4 


TURKISH    RUGS  125 

"  The  same  intercourse  was  kept  by  the  provinces  in  northeast- 
ern Asia  with  Indostan  and  China;  and  among  the  numerous 
tribes  of  Tartars,  even  those  which  retain  their  pastoral  manners  in 
greatest  purity,  the  demand  for  the  productions  of  India  and  China 
is  very  considerable.  In  order  to  supply  them  with  these  produc- 
tions, caravans  set  out  annually  from  Boghar,  Samarcand,.  and 
several  other  places,  and  return  with  large  cargoes  of  Indian  and 
Chinese  goods."  * 

It  is  recorded  that  Mohammed,  becoming  jealous  of 
the  progress  of  Christianity,  was  anxious  to  outdo  the 
older  religion  in  every  way  possible.  In  order  to 
secure  a  large  number  of  converts,  he  determined  to 
attack  the  various  caravans  as  they  approached  Mecca, 
where  he  dwelt,  and  where,  all  through  the  centuries, 
pilgrims  had  gathered.  At  the  point  of  the  sword  he 
demanded  allegiance,  and  threatened  death  to  any  who 
refused.  In  this  way  he  terrorized  many  who  avowed 
their  purpose  to  yield  to  his  claims,  and  thus  he 
added  to  his  followers,  and  finally  sent  converts  every- 
where to  spread  his  teachings. 

From  time  to  time  certain  rugs  find  their  way  into 
collections,  which  are  called  "  Mecca"  rugs,  and  there 
are  various  reasons  for  the  use  of  this  name.  A 
"  Mecca"  rug  is  one  that  has  been  made  for  or  by  an 
individual  for  his  own  pilgrimage,  and  it  is  custom- 
arily of  the  finest  materials  and  bears  the  choicest  of 
tribal  and  national  designs.  Such  are  handed  down 
in  families  as  heirlooms,  and  are  sometimes  cut  up  in 
small  pieces  and  distributed  to  different  members  of 
the  family  of  the  pilgrim  at  his  death.  Vast  num- 
bers of  Shiraz  rugs   have   been    used   for  pilgrimages 

*  "  History  of  the  Ancients  of  India,"  London,  May  10,  1791. 


126  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

which  have  in  this  way  obtained  the  right  to  be  called 
"  Mecca  "  rugs. 

Besides  the  rug,  which  is  personal  property,  each 
pilgrim  who  performs  the  journey  to  the  Sacred  City, 
is  apt  to  take  with  him  choice  specimens  of  family  or 
tribal  weavings  to  sell  for  the  high  prices  obtained 
there,  or  at  seaport  towns  east  and  west  of  the  city 
itself.  These  rugs  are  also  called  by  purchasers 
"  Mecca  "  rugs,  and  they  were  apt  to  be  very  beauti- 
ful before  the  spirit  of  commercialism  seized  the 
people  of  the  Orient.  In  still  another  way  the  name 
is  applied  by  connoisseurs  who  wish  to  describe  the 
great  beauty  of  a  bit  of  antique  weaving.  They  say 
"The  rug  is  a  gem,  and  a  genuine  Mecca," — just  as 
Orientals  will  speak  of  a  valuable  Persian  weave  as  an 
"  old  Iran "  without  attempting  to  say  when  and 
where  it  was  made.  This  careless  use  of  the  word 
has  given  erroneous  impressions  to  many  who  have 
supposed  that  genuine  "Meccas"  were  made  in  the 
Holy  City.     This,  however,  is  not  the  case. 

A  consideration  of  the  reasons  for  certain  forms  of 
present-day  worship  invariably  carries  the  student  of 
ornament  back  to  a  period  prior  to  all  that  is  custom- 
ary to-day,  and  specialists  everywhere  are  devoting 
themselves  to  the  task  of  making  connections  between 
that  which  is  and  that  which  was  and  no  more  valu- 
able contributions  can  be  found  to  serve  as  repositor- 
ies for  silent  unintentional  testimony  than  antique 
Oriental  rugs  in  which  remain  designs  which  were 
originally  based  on  symbols.  In  their  accounts  of 
pilgrimages  to  Mecca,  travellers  lay  special  stress  on 
the  fact  that  the  worshipper  must  go  around  the  sacred 


TURKISH    RUGS  127 

stone,  and  this  harks  back  to  the  old  sun-worship  of 
people  in  that  part  of  the  world,  and  to  various  forms 
instituted  by  them.  The  circular  movements  practised 
by  devotees  of  all  religious  systems  from  Arabia  to 
China  have  given  easily  recognized  forms  based  on  the 
primary  symbolic  representations  of  the  sun,  the  solar 
disc,  the  circle,  the  wheel,  etc.  The  old  Assyrian 
winged  globe  and  the  Buddhist  praying-wheel  both 
testify  to  early  belief  in  the  movement  of  the  great 
god-sphere  through  the  heavens,  and  are  closely 
copied  in  both  ancient  and  modern  textile  designs. 
The  wheel  has  two  distinct  forms  of  expression  in 
ornament, — one  the  evolution  of  the  floral,  and  the 
other  of  the  geometric  style.  Buddhist  handling  of  the 
thought  has  given  us  lotus  forms,  and  western  Asian 
methods  the  various  star  forms  which  have  found 
fullest  development  in  Caucasian  designs,  and  which 
have  now,  it  is  needless  to  say,  become  but  empty 
pattern.  In  sun  symbols,  showing  the  intention  of 
the  designer  to  indicate  revolution,  are  found,  painted 
upon  pottery  and  woven  into  textiles,  the  szvastika 
inside  the  circle,  and  sometimes  the  cross  with  equal 
arms.  The  circle  vies  with  the  scroll  and  S  form  for 
popularity  in  representing  the  sun.  Winged  circles, 
both  Egyptian  and  Assyrian,  sometimes  show  flame 
motifs,  either  within  the  circle  or  emanating  from  it, 
and  modern  pattern-makers  constantly  revert  to  these 
old  classic  and  archaic  designs  in  the  present-day 
reproductions. 

In  Scandinavian  and  Norse  ornament  are  found 
borders  which  are  full  of  significance,  and  which  unite 
the  theories  about  several  distinct  variants  of  the  best- 


128  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

known  sun  motifs.  Through  this  most  interesting  use 
of  pattern,  and  in  designs  that  at  first  do  not  plainly 
manifest  their  origin,  we  are  led  to  a  recognition  of 
features  indicative  of  secondary  as  well  as  primary 
symbols.  The  human  intention  to  assist  the  great 
hero  in  his  journey,  and  to  provide  sun  chariots  and 
sun  boats,  is  demonstrated  in  the  art  of  Asia  Minor 
and  eastern  Europe  wherever  Turkish  rule  has  been 
established. 

By  the  skilful  use  of  colour  the  outline  forms  in 
many  fabrics  are  entirely  concealed,  and  in  this  way 
the  rare  ability  of  the  Oriental  weaver  is  evinced. 
The  boldest  patterns  are  softened  and  blended  by 
changing  the  background  from  time  to  time,  so  that 
all  thought  of  stiff  design  is  eliminated,  and  the  mar- 
vel of  beauty  confounds  our  Occidental  senses.  It  is 
perchance  because  the  art  of  Asia  is  so  old  that  it  is 
possible  for  it  to  embrace  both  the  most  remote  and 
realistic  expression  of  man's  mind,  and  at  the  same 
time  every  fantastic  dream  that  has  delighted  mediae- 
val and  modern  interpretation  of  design. 


MUG- r LATE  XIX 


GHIORDEZ  RUG 


MUG-PLATE  XIX 


'J 


GHIORDEZ  RUG 
Loaned  by  Mr.  James  W.  Ellsworth 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

SIXTEENTH-century  Ghiordez  rug." 

S.  S.  Costikyan. 

Author's  Description 


We  are  led  by  the  great  beauty  and  wealth  of 
ornament  in  this  rug  to  notice  the  over-elabo- 
ration and  heavy  nature  of  a  design  which  has 
drawn  inspiration  from  many  sources.  The 
ground  in  each  of  the  border  stripes  is  so  well 
covered  that  the  plain  ground  of  the  central 
panel  is  in  strong  contrast,  and  noticeably  re- 
lieves the  design  in  its  entirety.  The  rug  is  of 
"■mosaic"  nature  in  weave,  and  is  a  superbly 
beautiful  specimen. 


«1U«U*W"<!  " 


KUC.-Pl.ATE   XIX 


CHAPTER   XVI 

REGION   OF   THE   GREAT   RIVERS 

THE  district  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas 
on  the  north  and  the  desert  of  Arabia  on  the  south 
has  been  the  scene  of  countless  changes  of  govern- 
ment and  ceaseless  migration,  to  and  fro,  of  the  tribes 
of  Asia  and  the  conquering  heroes  of  Europe. 
Every  new  influence  that  has  swept  over  this  stretch 
of  country  has  materially  marked  its  art,  and  never 
more  absolutely  than  now  was  knowledge  of  the  treas- 
ures of  the  past  obtainable.  Excavations  and  explora- 
tions are  confirming  the  speculations  of  men  of  science 
and  are  indisputably  establishing  facts.  The  geo- 
graphical boundaries  of  this  region  are  so  distinct  that 
with  them  we  may  easily  frame  each  successive  picture 
in  the  great  world  panorama  that  has  there  been  un- 
rolled. South  of  Lakes  Van  and  Urumiah,  and 
between  them  and  the  river  Euphrates,  the  most 
important  of  western  Asian  civilizations  lie  buried. 
The  great  monarchies  of  Assyria,  Mesopotamia,  and 
Babylonia  were  parents  of  the  numberless  and  intricate 
designs  which  we  find  handed  down  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  present,  and  from  this  centre  art-motifs 
spread  in  every  direction.  One  might  study  the  region 
of  the  great  rivers,  and  through  each  change  in  the 
world  of  events  locate  the  Powers   as   they  rose  and 


<3° 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


REGION    OF    THE    GREAT    RIVERS    131 

fell   for  within   the  boundaries  of  the   Euphrates  and 
Tigris  and  Lake  Van  and  Urumiah  the  past  lies  await- 
ine  recognition.     As  the  Turkish  empire  includes  this 
section  of  country  at  the  present  time,  we  must  claim 
the   district  as   Turkish    in    our  classification.        Both 
ancient  and   modern    names   are   used    in    present-day 
nomenclature,  and  often,  to  prevent  confusion  in   our 
study,  these  main   geographical  boundaries  should  in 
turn  be  filled   in  on   the  map   with    the    names   given 
during  successive  periods.     It  holds  to  reason  that  the 
geometric   art   of   the  weavers    of  the  Caucasus  must 
have  been  the  result  of  great  thought  and  not  of  hap- 
hazard design.     To  the  ancient  Chaldeans  and  magi- 
cians who  sought  to  account  for  the  past  and  prophecy 
regarding  the  future,  we  owe  a  vast   number  of  signs 
and     forms    which    we    now    term     "geometric,"   but 
which   originally  were  probably  symbolic,  and    these 
claims  of  past   civilization   should   be    recognized  and 
established  as  pre-Mohammedan. 

The  primitive  peoples  who  occupied  the  fertile 
valleys  of  the  great  rivers  were  worshippers  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  and  their  skill  in  astronomy  and 
astrology  is  too  well  known  to  admit  of  dispute. 
Their  cuneiform  characters,  cut  into  signets  and 
pressed  into  bricks,  may  be  examined  to-day,  and  to 
their  symbolic  characters  many  modern  patterns  arc 
traced.  Eastward,  westward,  and  northward  the 
evidences  of  the  thought-life  of  these  ancient  peoples 
were  scattered,  even  before  the  advance  of  Moham- 
medism,  which,  under  penalty  of  the  sword,  gave  the 
choice  between  submission  and  death.  In  the  early 
weavings  the  most  significant  designs  were  wrought, 


£*--<n 


^la^Vg^f 


132  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

and  these  may  be  traced  in  ancient  sculptures  and 
identified  in  rugs  of  the  later  centuries  in  which  old 
tribal  patterns  were  copied  in  fabrics  presented  to 
conquerors  as  "  tribute-rugs."  These  old  rugs  are 
most  highly  prized  by  European  collectors  to-day. 

It  is  plainly  evident  that  in  all  records  of  the  past 
we  find  much  that  will  materially  help  us  in  our 
analysis  of  objects  to-day,  and  we  must  endeavour  to 
grasp  with    our  thought    as    large    a    portion    of   the 

world's  history  as  possi- 
ble, insisting  upon  a 
geographical  concept  of 
the  relation  of  things  to 
each  other  as  influencing 
pattern. 

The  section  of  rug-pro- 
ducing  country  which 
stretches  in  a  southerly 
direction  from  Lakes 
Van  and  Urumiah  is  held 
within  the  limiting 
boundaries  of  the  two 
great  rivers,  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  Whatever 
ornament  still  remains  in 
the  region  of  the  buried 
cities,  Babylon,  Ctesti- 
phon,  and  Nineveh,  is  of 
in-  no  immediate  impor- 

TAIN  ALTARS  AND  CRENELATIONS      tailCe    tO     the     tl'ibeS    wllO 

through  the  centuries  have  woven  for  utilitarian  pur- 
poses   their    rough    homespun    fabrics    and    knotted 


n 


*H — H^ 


TX 


RUG-FLATE  XX 


GHIORDEZ  RUG 


M  UG-PLA  TE  XX 


A 


GHIORDEZ  RUG 
Loaned  by  Mr.  James  W.  Ellsworth 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

GHIORDEZ  rug  of  the    nineteenth-cen- 
tury." S.  S.  Costikyan. 

Author's  Description 


In  this  rug  is  shown  a  rigid  adherence  to  the 
distribution  of  borders  and  panels;  bid  the 
details  of  ornament  in  the  main  stripe  of  the 
border  reveal  Iranian  influence  as  it  was  trans- 
mitted directly  from  Persia  and  not  by  ivay  of 
the  islands  of  the  sea.  Here,  too,  the  meander 
in  the  narrow  stripes  has  passed  from  the  primi- 
tive design  to  the  ribbon,  and  the  water-line 
around  the  central  panel  occasionally  breaks 
into  the  zigzag  in  a  most  suggestive  way. 


RU( -PLATE    XX 


REGION    OF    THE    GREAT     RIVERS     133 

carpets.  In  the  Caucasian  district  north  of  Mosul, 
and  in  western  Persia,  have  been  developed  many 
of  the  motifs  of  design  that  we  recognise  as  old 
"Chaldean,"  "Assyrian,"  and  "Babylonian,"  now 
that  excavations  have  established  absolute  evidence 
for  much  that  has  heretofore  been  largely  speculation. 
We  note  in  old  Mosul  rugs  many  forms  which  have 
been  adopted  by  the  people  of  western.  Persia,  who 
have  used  them  without  any  regard  to  their  signifi- 
cance. Noticeable  among  these  designs  are  many  that 
may  be  traced  to  ancient  fortifications,  moats,  sites  of 
towns,  and  crenelations,  which  have  assumed  the  form 
of  borders  and  have  become  tribal  patterns  of  interest. 
Mosul  fabrications  together  with  Kurdish  weavings 
are  the  despair  of  the  student  when  first  he  is  trying 
to  classify  objects,  until  he  learns  that  the  Kurds, 
or  wanderers  in  the  mountain  districts  west  of  Persia, 
adopt  every  imaginable  conceit  in  the  designs  with 
which  they  make  bright  and  spirited  their  nomad 
existence.  Soft  and  luxurious  indeed  are  many  of  the 
rugs  woven  in  mountain  fastnesses  and  in  remote 
villages,  and  as  tributary  offerings  they  have  been 
taken  by  first  one  and  then  another  sovereign,  who 
has  demanded  service  though  he  may  never  have 
succeeded  in  conquering  the  lawless  tribes.  So  con- 
fused are  the  designs  in  many  of  these  rugs  that  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  resort  to  other  means  of  iden- 
tification than  the  study  of  pattern. 

There  is  a  heavy,  glossy,  lustrous  quality  about 
both  Mosul  and  Kurdish  rugs  :  they  are  commonly 
woven  with  warp  and  weft  both  of  wool,  and  the  knots 
are  tied  in  Turkish  fashion.     Occasionally  the  selvage 


i34  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

shows  a  checkered  effect  in  Kurdish  rugs,  and  this  is 
one  of  the  features  we  find  copied  in  Asia  Minor 
fabrics.  Old  Mosul  as  well  as  Kurdish  rugs  have 
sometimes  heavy  braided  loop  ends  extending  beyond 
the  fringe,  and  there  are  evidences  of  nomad  work- 
manship about  them. 

The  reason  for  the  dismay  of  the  student  at  finding 
it  impossible  readily  to  identify  these  fabrics  is  evi- 
dent when  he  considers  that  he  is  attempting  to  study 
a  subdivision  of  a  great  subject  before  the  main  divis- 
ions are  thoroughly  understood  and  recognised.  In 
Persian  fabrics  a  class  of  rugs  called  "  Kurdistan  " 
seems  to  the  casual  observer  very  like  those  spoken  of 
as  "  Kurdish."  The  Kurdistan  province  of  eastern 
Persia  bears  a  different  relation  to  the  output  of  that 
country  from  the  fabrics  manufactured  west  of  Lake 
Urumiah,  or  at  least  so  we  find  it  to  be  in  our  group- 
ing together,  here  in  the  Occident,  the  material 
objects  in  which  are  manifested  Oriental  thought,  life, 
and  manufacture.  No  better  opportunity  than  this 
may  present  itself  to  us  for  studying  some  of  the 
designs  which  trace  back  to  a  time  prior  to  the  pre- 
sent occupation  of  this  district  of  country. 

Assyrian  and  Babylonian  art  must  always  serve  as 
the  base  upon  which  later  designs  were  built,  and  it  is 
now  possible  to  obtain  illustrations  of  ancient  life  and 
habits  which  are  proving  and  interpreting  ornament. 
Sun  and  star  worshippers,  and  observers  of  natural 
phenomena,  studied  the  mysteries  of  existence  in  the 
part  of  the  country  called  "  the  region  of  the  great 
rivers,"  and  to  their  speculations  we  have  every  reason 
to  revert  in  our  study  of  the  migration  of  symbols. 


REGION    OF    THE    GREAT     RIVERS     135 


TLhc  Sacrefc 

XTree. 


The  Garden  of  Eden,  wherever  it  may 
have  been,  has  given  to  Christian  and 
Pagan  design  one  motif  beyond  all 
others  significant  and  artistic, — the  Sacred  Tree;  and 
before  considering  the  weavings  of  any  other  part  of 
Asia  we  must  pause  in  the  neighbourhood  where 
the  human  story  began.  Not  that  we  expect  to  find 
there  anything  that  has  to 
do  with  the  past,  but  be- 
cause, wherever  it  has  tra- 
velled and  in  whatever  fabric 
we  find  it,  the  tree  in  story 
and  in  ornament  first  devel- 
oped beside  the  river  Euph- 
rates. 

In  whatever  way  it  may 
have  been  worshipped  and 
pictured,  the  tree  has  given 
more  definite  art  motifs  than 
almost  any  other  one  object. 
From  east  to  west  it  has  ex- 
tended, and  root  and  branch 
have  forced  their  way  into 
ornament.  We  find  that  in 
definite  designs  the  cypress,  pine,  willow,  fig,  bamboo, 
and  sycamore  figure  in  Oriental  art  with  many  less 
well-known  trees. 

For  various  reasons  trees  were  deemed  sacred : 
those  that  in  any  way  affected  man's  weal  or  woe 
were  especially  venerated,  and  the  fruit  whose  juice 
furnished  a  beneficial  elixir  was  worshipped  by  those 
whose  gratitude  knew  no  bounds.      It  was  therefore 


CONVENTIONALIZED  FORM 
OF  TREE. 


'36 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG     BOOK 


very  natural  for  its  decorative  qualities  to  find  recog- 
nition, and  from  earliest  times  man's  attitude  toward 
its  supernatural  power  caused  him  to  carve,  paint,  and 
weave  its  form  in  stone  and  fabric.  Different  coun- 
tries have  chosen  one  or  another  tree  for  special  wor- 
ship, though  in  central  Asia  half-a-dozen  tree  forms 
are  often  pictured  together  and  vie  with  each  other 


VARIOUS  CONVENTIONALIZED  FORMS  OF   THE    SACRED   TREE   COPIED    IN 
ASIA  MINOR  AND  CAUCASIAN   RUGS. 

for  favour.  In  ancient  art  the  grape-vine  is  very  fre- 
quently represented  as  a  tree,  and  the  fruit  is  so 
highly  conventionalized  that  it  is  often  mistaken  for  a 
cone.  The  fig-tree,  too,  is  so  crudely  drawn  as  to 
withhold  its  distinguishing  features  and  force  itself 
upon  us  as  an  unknown  object.  Recent  illustrations 
showing  the   appearance   of  both   of  these   forms  on 


\ 


V-i, 


3! 


CO 

ID 


• 


*  CO 
<  W 
>  J 


£* 

X  — 
*Q 

W  Id 

»:  o 

ID  tH 


|D 

u 

co 


CO 
CO 


REGION    OF    THE    GREAT    RIVERS     137 

coins  and  medals  have  done  much  to  lighten  the  task 
of  the  student  of  symbol,  who  finds  in  old  Ispahan 
rugs  various  renderings  of  the  vine  and  fig,  and  may 
now  identify  them  with  classic  and  archaic  repre- 
sentations of  the  sacred  tree, — sacred  because  its 
gifts  to  man  were  supposed  to  come  direct  from  the 
gods. 

In  China  there  grows  a  species  of  palmate-leaved 
tree  upon  which  the  Fung-hwang  is  supposed  to  feed. 
Again  and  again  we  find  this  tree  woven  in  Persian  as 
well  as  in  Chinese  fabrics,  and,  true  to  tradition,  the 
sacred  bird  hovers  near  it  and  establishes  the  truth 
concerning  it.  The  mulberry-tree,  because  of  its 
service  to  the  silkworm,  has  furnished  art  motifs  which 
have  been  perpetuated  in  Mongolian  fabrics,  as  have 
the  three  cone-bearing  trees, — the  cypress,  the  yew, 
and  the  pine.  The  cedar  and  the  willow  have  both 
been  highly  developed  in  the  art  of  Cathay,  but  it  is 
to  a  mythical  tree  that  we  look  for  the  most  interesting 
arborescent  development  in  that  country. 

Near  the  palace  of  Si  Wang  Mu  grows  the  tree 
whose  fruit  grants  immortality  to  him  who  can  secure 
it ;  for  only  those  favoured  by  the  fairy  queen  dare  to 
make  demand  for  it.  This  tree  grows  beside  the  sea 
of  Jade,  and  its  flower,  fruit,  and  leaf  are  found  in  tex- 
tile fabrics.  A  tree  which  is  believed  to  be  typically 
Chinese  is  called  the  calendar-tree,  and  upon  it  a  leaf 
is  supposed  to  grow  each  day  for  the  first  fifteen  days 
of  the  month,  and  then  each  day  for  fifteen  days  a 
single  leaf  falls. 

The  eagle-tree  is  also  a  Chinese  product,  and  that 
tree  is  guarded  by  two  birds,  who  fight  the  attack  of  a 


158 


THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


dragon  monster  who  attempts  to  steal  the  fruit  and 
kill  the  birds. 

The  stories  about  these  various  trees,  though  mythi- 
cal, are  very  absolute,  and  it  is  surprising  how  often  in 
the  rugs  of  Persia  these  Mongolian  devices  are  met 
with.  Upon  the  calendar-tree  stars  instead  of  fruit 
tip  the  ends  of  the  branches,  and  often  take  the  shape 
of  well-known  constellations.  In  the  brocades  and 
grenadines  with  which  the  Chinese  clothe  themselves 
are  found  designs  that  still  remain  absolutely  true  to 
tradition,  often  showing  to  which  of  the  religions  of 
China  the  weaver  is  a  devotee.  These  devices  appear 
also  in  old  and  modern  rugs,  and,  while  they  are  yet 
unspoiled  by  outside  influence,  should  be  studied  and 
interpreted.  Si  Wang  Mu's  mythical  tree  of  immor- 
tality is  supposed  to  grow  in  the  Taoist  heavens,  and 
is  unlike  any  paradisaical  tree  described  in  Buddhist 

legends.  Ancient 
Taoist  tradition 
testifies  to  the  be- 
lief that  upon  a 
high  mountain 
grows  a  tree  by 
which  men  may 
climb  from  earth 
to  heaven,  and  this 
tree  in  art  is  not  unlike  the  calendar-tree,  only  that  it 
is  always  represented  conventionally,  with  mountains 
at  its  base.  Gem-trees,  upon  which  various  sorts  of 
stones  and  jewels  were  clustered  in  the  shape  of  fruit, 
suggest  the  tree  of  life  in  the  Garden  of  Eden  which 
bare  "  twelve  manner  of  fruits,"  and  these  beautiful 


THE    TREE    IN    HINDU    MYTHOLOGY 
AS  SOMETIMES  COPIED  IN  FABRICS. 


REGION    OF    THE    GREAT     RIVERS     139 

objects  are  often  pictured  in  rugs  of  the  Ferraghan 
district,  in  which  old  designs  are  being  reproduced. 

Japanese  tree-worship  is  strongly  tinged  with 
Buddhist  thought,  and  the  spirit  within  the  tree  is 
poetically  fancied  and  ardently  courted  and  addressed. 
Written  messages  tied  to  the  branches  of  the  tree  are 
supposed  to  reach  the  resident  god,  and  fanciful 
thoughts  regarding  the  counterpart  in  Paradise  of  the 
most  beautiful  trees  on  earth  are  instigated  and  nur- 
tured by  contemplation  and  reverie. 

Branches  of  trees  were  and  are  used  in  all  Eastern 
worship,  not  merely  for  decorative  purposes,  as  we 
use  them,  but  with  significance.  The  willow  wand  is 
used  as  a  talisman  to  keep  off  evil  in  China  ;  the  bam- 
boo twig  serves  numberless  beneficial  ends  ;  and  the 
pine,  as  an  emblem  of  longevity,  accompanies  all 
illustrations  of  the  genii  who  are  thought  to  dwell  in 
a  land  where  the  sacred  tree  flourishes.  Tied  to  the 
branches  of  trees,  and  made  fast  to  magic  wands 
which  are  planted  in  the  supposed  pathway  of  gods 
and  goddesses,  are  the  prayers  of  those  who  believe 
in  direct  communication  with  the  Divine. 

The  Path  of  Prayer. 

"  Among  the  gnarled  pines  of  old  Japan, 

That  shade  a  hill  where  patient  crickets  sing, 
I  chanced  upon  a  hidden  path  that  ran 
Upward  beneath  a  mystic  covering. 

"  A  hundred  gates  the  sacred  pathway  keep, 

Mere  stems  of  red  with  one  straight  beam  across, 
In  rigid  angles  mounting  up  the  steep, 

Their  scarlet  hue  bepatched  with  ancient  moss. 


i4o  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

"  And  springing  from  the  mould  on  every  side, 

Like  ghosts  of  grass  that  march  in  pilgrim  band, 
Grew  fluttering  papers  written  all  and  tied 
As  banners  pendant  from  a  mimic  wand. 

"  I  wondered  long,  when  from  the  drowsy  wood 

A  whisper  reached  me,  '  'Tis  the  Path  of  Prayer, 
Where  nightly  Kwannon  walks  in  pitying  mood 
To  read  the  sad  petitions  planted  there.'  " 

— Mary  McNeil  Fenolossa. 

Travelling  westward  across  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains, we  find  in  the  Hindu  cosmogony  a  different 
form  of  the  tree,  and  one  that  in  every  way  suggests 
the  tree  of  life.  The  branches,  whatever  they  be  like 
in  form  of  fruit  or  foliage,  are  filled  with  birds  and 
animals,  and  rustle  with  the  spirit  of  creation.  Grow- 
ing out  of  the  chaotic  conditions  at  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  the  Hindu  tree  is  supposed  to  be  watered  by 
the  great  rivers,  and  to  bear  seeds  of  all  sorts  which 
are  carried  hither  and  yon  by  birds,  so  that  the  earth 
may  bring  forth  plants,  trees,  and  herbs  for  the  sus- 
tenance of  mankind.  The  drink  called  soma  was 
derived  from  the  leaves  of  the  Hindu  tree  of  life,  and 
it  so  quickened  the  intellect  that  knowledge  was 
added  to  the  attributes  of  the  wonderful  tree. 

Wherever  these  ideas  originated,  and  however  they 
may  have  migrated  all  over  the  Orient,  we  constantly 
find  expressions  of  them  and  it  shows  a  lack  of  knowl- 
edge of  the  universality  of  the  belief  in  the  sacred 
tree  to  call  every  tree  in  ornament  by  the  same  name, 
— "  the  tree  of  life." 

The  influences  so  far  described  have  their  manifes- 
tation in  the  countries  east  of  Persia,  and  it  is  wise  to 


i.THIBETAN  " TREE-OF-TEN-THOUSAND-IMAGES ", 

2.   LEAF  OF   "TREE  OF-TEN-THOUSAND-1MAGES", 

3,4.5-  TREES  AND  FRUITS  COPIED   IN   TEXTILES, 

6.  TREE-FORMS  COPIED   IN    PERSIAN    RUGS 


REGION    OF    THE    GREAT     RIVERS     141 

draw  the  line  somewhat  abruptly  right  here,  and  to 
speak  of  Mohammedan  ideas  about  the  sacred  tree, 
and  then  we  may  intelligently  distinguish  between 
Arabian  and  Mongolian  devices  when  they  appear  in 
Persian  fabrics. 

The  fruits  and  the  rivers  of  the  Mohammedan  Par- 
adise promise  most  alluring  and  attractive  delights, 
and  in  the  trees  the  "  green  birds  "  hover  in  which  the 
souls  of  the  righteous  are  supposed  to  lodge.  In  an 
old  Ispahan  carpet  of  rare  beauty  and  quality  the 
birds  are  portrayed  as  flying  in  constellations  which, 
held  within  cloud-bands,  are  twined  in  the  branches 
of  the  tree  of  paradise.  All  sorts  of  mythological 
ideas  are  given  form  in  Arabian  tree  devices.  We 
find  the  zodiac-tree,  which  bears  stars  upon  its 
twelve  branches,  and  the  tree  of  punishment,  upon 
the  extended  arms  of  which  appear  the  heads  of 
animals. 

In  strictly  decorative  art  the  tree  takes  vine-like 
characteristics,  and  birds  standing  on  either  side  of  it 
destroy  small  serpents  which  seem  to  be  attacking 
the  roots.  This  device  is  not  unlike  an  East  Indian 
rendering  of  a  design  which  demonstrates  the  belief 
in  the  ability  of  the  peacock  to  destroy  serpent  life, 
and  in  either  one  or  the  other  direction  the  idea  must 
have  migrated.  It  would  be  impossible  in  an  ordinary 
lifetime  to  learn  one  half  of  the  myths  of  Islam,  but 
nevertheless  it  is  surprising  how  many  reveal  them- 
selves in  designs  on  rugs  even  to  our  limited  knowl- 
edge. Those  relating  to  trees  mention  the  tooba 
tree,  which  is  described  as  being  so  large  that  the 
fleetest  horse  could  not  gallop  around  it  in  a  hundred 


142 


THE    ORIENTAL     RUG    BOOK 


INDIAN  ARRANGE- 
MENT OF  TREE 
IN   DESIGN. 


years,  or  from  one  end  of  its  shadow  to  another.  It 
bears  dates,  grapes,  and  all  manner  of  fruits.  Should 
it  be  desired,  its  branches  will  yield  the  flesh  of  birds 

and  animals,  and  clothes  of  green 
silk  will  burst  from  its  blossoms, 
and  beasts  to  ride  on.  The  lotus- 
tree,  depicted  as  "  upon  the  utmost 
limit  of  created  things,"  appears  in 
illustrations,  in  silk  carpets,  of  Mo- 
hammed's journey  to  heaven.  Only 
as  far  as  that  tree  of  somewhat 
mysterious  shape  and  nature  could 
the  Angel  Gabriel  go  with  the  Pro- 
phet, and  according  to  the  fancy  of 
the  weaver  this  so-called  lotus-tree 
figures  in  design  and  fabric. 
In  the  carpets  of  Persia  we  discover  a  mixture  of 
legends.  In  old  Kerman  and  Ispahan  designs,  many 
of  which  are  being  copied  in  the  newest  of  silks  to-day, 
are  portrayed  Mohammedan  angels  in  Mongolian 
clouds  hovering  over  easily  recognised  Persian  tree 
and  plant  forms.  The  mingling  of  religions  has  made 
it  impossible  to  draw  the  line  accurately  between  the 
decorative  emblems  and  symbols  which  record  man's 
belief,  but  in  the  Oriental  rug  there  is  more  fidelity  to 
motifs  that  have  import  and  significance  to  individuals, 
than  in  any  other  art  object  possible  for  us  to  handle. 
The  cypress-tree  of  Persia,  as  it  originally  figured  in 
the  belief  of  the  fire-worshipping  people  as  the  em- 
blem of  Zoroaster,  casts  its  shadow  over  many  of  the 
most  treasured  specimens  of  Iranian  looms.  Pointing 
ever  upward  with  unerring  directness,  the  cypress-tree 


REGION    OF    THE    GREAT     RIVERS     143 

is  reverenced  as  a  symbol  of  immortality  and  is  pic- 
tured in  both  crude  and  highly  elaborated  styles.  As 
a  design  it  was  used  naturally  in  mosque  and  grave 
carpets,  when  such  were  made  for  native  use ;  but 
now,  with  loss  of  meaning,  it  has  become  a  very  popu- 
lar motif  in  modern  rugs,  as  it  is  always  artistic  and 
generally  an  easy  design  to  work.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  examples    of   the    mixture    of    ideas   and 


TREE  FORM   IN   INDIAN  ORNAMENT.   liUDDHA  MOSQUE,  AHMEDABAD. 

styles  was  demonstrated  not  long  ago  in  a  moderately 
old  Ispahan  rug,  in  which  the  cypress-tree  as  main 
design  was  drawn  so  as  to  show  a  series  of  overlapping 
leaves,  on  each  of  which  characters  were  written  in 
almost  exact  reproduction  of  the  design  on  the  leaves 
of  the  Buddhist  "tree  of  ten  thousand  images,"  which 
are  supposed  to  have  magic  power  and  to  be  written 
upon  by  the  gods. 


144  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

In  architecture  and  the  decorative  arts  one  finds  the 
cypress-tree  so  often  used  that  we  can  readily  examine 
its  details  and  determine  whether  or  not  it  is  true 
to  tradition  in  shape  and  proportions.  Hammered 
into  brass  and  silver  its  form  stands  eloquently  true 
to  ancient  belief,  even  when  handled  by  unthinking 
artisans  to-day,  who,  because  they  desire  to  put  upon 
their  lotas,  or  drinking-vessels,  something  that  has 
honourable  significance,  decorate  with  the  cypress- 
tree  these  articles  of  everyday  use.  Of  no  figure  in 
ornament  can  it  be  said  more  truly  than  of  the  tree 
that  it  is  easy  to  distinguish  between  the  literal  and 
the  poetic  representation  of  it.  When  it  appears,  as 
it  does  in  the  Buddha  window  at  Ahmedabad,  as 
ornament  merely,  we  find  that  the  most  poetic  imagi- 
nation has  given  rise  to  as  graceful  a  form  as  was  ever 
devised,  while  an  attempt  to  picture  a  tree  of  knowl- 
edge, a  tree  of  evil,  or  a  tree  of  life  leads  to  a  gro- 
tesque representation  from  which  art-lovers  naturally 
shrink.  Only  by  frankly  admitting  this  can  we  sum- 
mon courage  to  examine  the  woven  horrors  that 
aesthetic  taste  eschews. 

As  the  soma-tree  provided  a  drink  for  the  Hindu 
gods,  so  in  Persia  the  sap  of  the  haoma-tree  yielded 
the  same  sort  of  beverage  and  granted  immortality. 
Leaves  of  these  sacred  trees  are  even  more  often 
represented  in  art  than  the  trees  themselves,  and  the 
significance  of  many  of  them  is  more  thoroughly 
understood  than  formerly.  The  much-talked-about 
palm-leaf  has  fluttered  down  upon  the  fabrics  of  all 
peoples,  and  one  student  after  another  has  gleaned 
his    quota    of    information    about    it    to    add    to    the 


VARIOUS     FORMS    OF  THE    TREE    IN    DESIGNS    TAKEN     FROM 
EMBROIDERED    TEXTILES   AND    Rl'ciS 


REGION    OF    THE    GREAT    RIVERS     MS 


general  mass  of  opinion.  At  least  we  have  discovered 
that  many  forms  were  called  in  Europe  "palm- 
leaves  "  when  they  were  first 
noticed  upon  chintzes  and  shawls 
that  were  brought  from  the  Orient 
by  early  travelers,  and  so  the 
name  was  popularly  applied  to  all 
leaves,  in  ornament,  with  twist 
or  gourd-like  termination  or  ap- 
pendage. Our  little  knowledge 
has  been  greatly  to  our  disadvan- 
tage, and  many  are  obliged  to 
admit  that  they  have  inadver- 
tently perpetuated  error  by  fail- 
ing to  notice  the  difference 
between  the  forms  with  which 
textiles  are  ornamented. 

The  palm-leaf  in  design  has 
within  a  few  years  been  very  care- 
fully considered  by  students  and 
writers,  both  in  Europe  and 
America,  who  have  given  names 
to  its  various  forms,  that  have 
been  so  universally  adopted  that 
it  is  both  courteous  and  desirable 
to  accept  them  as  descriptive. 
The  form  known  to  us  as  the 
"  palm-leaf  "  was  originally 
fraught  with  religious  meaning, 
and  in  its  simplest  rendering  followed  the  outline 
shape  of  the  cone,  which,  as  the  fruit  of  a  sacred 
tree,    served    as  an   emblem    of   immortality  and  was 


VARIOUS  LEAF  FORMS 
FOUND  IN  RUGS. 


146 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


revered  by  the  ancients.  Its  winged  seed  hidden  in 
the  cup-shaped  sections  of  the  cone  was  without 
doubt  pictured  as  surmounting  the  form 
far  oftener  than  we  think,  and  sculptured 
evidence  is  supposed  to  point  to  the  fact 
that  the  cone  itself  was  burned  in  re- 
ligious worship.  As  students  of  orna- 
ment, our  task  is  to  learn  to  distinguish 
between  forms  as  they  appear,  and  never 
to  try  to  twist  or  turn  in  a  speculative 
way  that  which  is,  into  what  we  would 
most  like  it  to  be,  in  order  to  prove  our 
theories.  Taking  from  known  objects 
various  renderings  of  the  palm-leaf  in 
ornament  will  so  quickly  train  the  eye 
to  note  the  difference  between  leaf,  fruit, 
and  composite  forms,  that  one  will  soon 
stand  possessed  of  personal  convictions 
which  he  may  apply  in  his  analytical 
study. 

In  Chinese  fabrics  we  find  a  repre- 
sentation of  an  almond  leaf,  and  also  one 
of  a  design  based  on  a  section  of  the 
mythical  fruit  of  immortality,  in  both  of 
which  shapes  ceremonial  pottery  was 
formerly  made.  Among  Canton  and 
Nankin  porcelains  taken  in  old  times 
river-loop  de- to     Europe     were     leaf-shaped    dishes 

SIGNS  IN  EAST  ...  .....  .  , 

indian        which    were  so    enthusiastically   received 

textiles.       that    they    were   finally    made    in    China 

for     commercial    purposes,    and    few    sets    of    blue 


01 

'f  Q 

®\  & 
©\©\  ©' 


REGION    OF    THE    GREAT     RIVERS    147 


CROWN-JEWEL 

WORN  BY  SUA  II 

ABBASS   THE 

GREAT. 


and    white    "  India  ware "  *    lack    side-dishes    of  this 
sort. 

The  palm-leaf  in  India  has  given  outline  ornamen- 
tation to  various  floral  forms  contained 
within  its  conventionalized  limits,  and 
whole  stories  of  root,  plant,  leaf,  and 
blossom  are  found  in  the  composite 
figures  that  are  distributed  freely  in 
the  ornamentation  of  all  sorts  of  East 
Indian  art  objects.  Sometimes  gourds 
furnish  motifs  in  Eastern  patterns, 
and  their  roughened,  warped  surfaces 
have  decorative  qualities  which  the 
art-worker  quickly  recognizes. 

Almost  all  things  sacred  are  pictured 
in  the  art  of  the  mystery-loving  East 
Indian  ;  and  whether  or  not  in  the 
long  ago,  the  pilgrims  to  the  sacred 
mosque  in  the  mountains,  that  bound 
the  Vale  of  Cashmere  endeavoured  to 
reproduce  in  ornament  the  remembered 
beauty  of  the  peaceful  winding  of  the 
river  upon  which  their  weary  eyes 
feasted  at  the  end  of  their  long  jour- 
ney, cannot  be  definitely  proved,  be- 
cause the  pattern  now  known  as  the 
"  river-loop  "  is  older  than  any  living 
weaver,  however  skilfully,  it  may  be 
reproduced  at  the  present  time. 

In  Persia  the  palm-leaf  takes  every 


VARIOUS  FORMS  <  IF 

CROWN-JEWELS 

THAT  HAVE  BE)  N 

CO  IT  EI)  IN 

DESIGN. 


*  So  called  because  carried  by  the  East  India  Company  to  Eng- 
land. 


148  THE   ORIENTAL   RUG   BOOK 

possible  sort  of  flower,  fruit,  cone,  flame,  and  com- 
posite form.  It  is  fantastically  arranged  in  the  rug 
designs  of  Khorassan  province  in  eastern  Persia,  sym- 
metrically distributed  upon  the  field  of  Shiraz  weav- 
ings,  and  in  unrelated  fashion  finds  representation  in 
both  border  and  field  designs  in  western  Persian  and 
Trans-Caucasian  fabrics.  There  are  two  ways  of 
studying  each  of  these  forms,  and  both  are  necessary. 
We  should  trace  first  the  outline  and  then  the  make-up 
of  each  figure.  In  this  way  we  begin  to  notice  that 
whole  tree  and  plant  forms  are  often  contained  within 
the  ornate  boundary  of  the  leaf  itself,  and  gems  and 
jewels  are  skilfully  copied  in  knots  of  lustrous  silk  and 
wool.  The  crown-jewels  of  Persia,  as  also  those  of 
India,  have  been  accurately  reproduced  in  ornament, 
and  are  thought  by  many  to  be  easily  discoverable  in 
Oriental  rug  designs.  True  it  is  that  there  are  those 
among  so-called  palm-leaf  forms  that  seem  composed 
of  jewels,  and  the  term  "  jewel-palm  '  has  found  its 
way  into  catalogues,  where  it  may  be  sure  of  an  en- 
during fame  to  which  it  has  more  right  than  some  are 
willing  to  admit. 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  with  absolute  certainty 
the  origin  of  the  "  palm  "  or  "  seal  "  pattern  which 
figures  in  two  ways  in  rug  designs  one  where  the 
whole  hand  appears  in  outline  ;  the  other  which  des- 
cribes the  curve  of  the  bent  little  finger  and  the  side 
of  the  palm  of  the  hand.  When  casually  observed, 
both  of  these  patterns  are  erroneously  classed  as 
palm-leaf  patterns,  but  tradition  and  the  testimony  of 
many  Orientals,who  know  what  it  is  to  covenant  and 
seal  with  blood, urge  the  belief  in  the  primitive  symbol 


REGION    OF    THE    GREAT    RIVERS     149 


from  which  the  design  has  evolved.  To  dip  the  hand 
in  human  blood  and  with  it  press  a  document  by  way 
of  making  signature,  is  a  custom  well  known  in  the 
East,  and  one  that  is  recorded  on 
old  parchments  and  copied  in  classic 
and  tribal  patterns. 

"  And  the  leaves  of  the  tree  were 
for  the  healing  of  the  nations."  Be- 
lief in  this  idea  originated  the  cus- 
tom of  depicting  all  sorts  and  kinds 
of  fruit  as  growing  upon  the  sacred 
tree,  and  about  the  natural  fruits  of 
the  Orient  and  their  curative  and 
stimulating  properties  more  of  in- 
terest is  being  discovered  every 
year.  Pits,  seeds,  and  stems  have 
each  and  all,  with  the  outlines  of 
cross-section  cuttings  of  the  fruits, 
given  motifs  for  tree  and  fruit 
forms,  and  beyond  all  that  it  is 
possible  to  prove  we  find  at  last 
that  the  imagination  of  the  weaver 
has  blossomed  on  all  sorts  of  woven    imprint  of  side  of 

CLOSED  HAND  SUG- 

trees  and  taken  shapes  and  cliarac-  gestive  of  talm- 
teristics  unlike  anything  natural.  LEAF  DESIGN- 
"The  fruit  of  the  tree  "has  always  been  the  object 
of  reverent  care  of  animals  which  have  guarded  it 
through  the  centuries.  One  creature  on  one  side  and 
one  on  the  other  either  eat  of  the  fruit  or  bend  over 
it  with  approval  and  protection.  Sometimes  certain 
animals  seem  to  have  charge  of  special  fruits,  whether 
they  are  growing  on  the  tree  or  have  been  plucked  and 


150  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

are  piled  by  themselves,  so  that  vases  and  baskets  of 
fruit  are  sometimes  represented  as  between  two  birds 
or  two  animals,  and  in  some  cases,  in  very  old  designs, 
between  two  human  beings, — evidently  kings  or 
priests. 

It  is  to  be  noted  with  great  satisfaction  that,  limit- 
less as  these  subjects  seem  to  be  when  first  our  inter- 
estjs  awakened  in  them,  they  are  very  definitely 
bounded.  "  Thus  far  shalt  thou  go  and  no  farther," 
the  student  hears  again  and  again  repeated  as  he 
endeavours  to  find  evidence  for  what  he  believes,  and 
it  is  both  reassuring  and  convincing  to  find  that  only 
the  absolute  seems  to  have  endured  through  all  the 
chances  and  changes  of  time.  When  that  which  has 
been  established  as  fact  is  thoroughly  comprehended, 
it  is  surprising  to  see  how  quickly  all  art  that  has  been 
based  upon  it  can  be  distinguished  from  that  which 
is  purely  fanciful,  and  only  when  we  can  thus  contrast 
the  two  can  we  sufficiently  respect  fidelity  to  tradition 
in  the  former  and  revel  in  the  unfettered  freedom  of 
the  latter. 


MUG-PLATE  XXI 


GHIORDEZ  RUG 


HUG-PLATE  XXI 


"J 


GHIORDEZ  RUG 
Size:  9.10X4.3 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

FINE    specimen  from    Anatolia,    Asia 
Minor,  and  over  two-hundred  years  old." 
Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat. 

Author's  Description 

This  fine  specimen  of  old  Ghiordez  weave  and 
pattern  shoivs  the  earliest  use  of  the  meander 
in  the  first,  third,  fifth,  and  seventh  stripes  of 
the  border.  Weavers  exhibit  various  ways  of 
using  this  motif,  either  as  a  zigzag  of  one  colour 
running  through  a  stripe  of  another  colour,  or 
as  running  over  a  ground  that  varies  in  colour, 
suggesting  tiles. 


i 


RUG-PLA'J  E   XXI 


CHAPTER  XVII 


SACRED    MOUNTAINS 

BETWEEN  the  Caucasus  district  and  the  region  of 
the  Great  Rivers  lie  the  three  lakes  Gokcha,  Van,  and 
Urumiah,  with 
Mount  Ararat  as  a 
somewhat  central 
point :  these  give  a 
permanence  to  the 
physical  aspect  of 
the  country  and  to 
this  tract,  men  have 
come  and  gone  from 
far  and  near  all 
through  the  years 
since,  according  to 
tradition,  the  peace- 
ful dove  was  sent 
forth  from  the  ark 
by  Noah.  During 
the  past  century 
railroads  have  made 
life  in  this  part  of 
the  Orient  very  dif-  Chinese  designs  showing  conven- 
ferent  from   what   it  tionalized  mountains. 

was  before  ;  but,  whatever  the  detrimental  effects  of 


iS2  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

steel-rail  invasion  may  be,  we  are  at  present  gainers, 
for  travellers  are  giving  us  both  impressions  and 
photographs  of  things  that  materially  assist  us  in  our 
study  here  at  home.  Within  half  a  century  many 
most  learned  writers  on  the  architecture  of  the  Orient 
have  frankly  said  that  there  were  certain  places  closed 
to  travellers,  about  which  one  could  only  speculate. 
Even  Ferguson,*  in  speaking  of  Samarcand  less  than 
forty  years  ago,  writes : 

"  Unfortunately  no  photographs  have  yet  been  published  of 
Samarcand,  and  no  plans  of  the  buildings  of  that  far-famed  city. 
We  have  not  seen  any  such  detailed  descriptions  as  would  enable 
us  to  speak  with  anything  like  certainty  of  their  affinities  or  differ- 
ences with  other  buildings  of  the  same  age.  All  that  can  be  said 
with  certainty  is  that  the  Great  Mosque  and  tomb  of  its  founder 
at  Samarcand  are  enamelled  in  the  same  style  as  the  mosque  at 
Tabreez.  .  .  The  whole  facade  of  the  mosque,  together  with 
minarets  and  domes,  is  covered  with  painted  tiles  so  far  as  can  be 
ascertained." 

In  contrast  to  this,  in  a  letter  written  within  the 
present  year,  a  friend  states  that  a  returned  traveller 
who  has  very  much  enjoyed  his  trip  through  Turkes- 
tan, has  brought  back  565  kodak  views  of  central 
Asia.  Close  study  of  these  views  of  the  details  in  the 
ornament  of  the  mosque  and  tomb  of  Tamerlane,  to 
which  Ferguson  alludes  so  guardedly;  of  the  interest- 
ing features  connected  with  the  life  of  the  people  all 
along  the  way  in  Russia,  Turkestan,  the  Caucasus  dis- 
trict, and  the  region  of  the  lakes,  where  on  his  return 
trip  the  traveller  made  a  careful  study  of  the  physical 


"  History  of  Architecture,"  By  James  Ferguson,  F.R.S.,  1865. 


BUG-PLATE  XXII 


SARAK  RUG 


RUG-PLATE  XXII 


SARAK  RUG 
Loaned  by  Mr.  James  W.  Ellsworth 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

"  l7  HIS  is  a  fragment  of  a  larger  rug  made 
-*•  early  in  the  eighteenth-century.  Various 
trees  are  represented  in  the  design.'''' 

S.  S.  Costikyan. 


RUG-PLATE  XXII 


SACRED    MOUNTAINS 


*53 


aspects  of  the  country, — all  tend  to  stimulate  the 
stayer-at-home  to  perfect  his  methods  of  making  an 
analytical  study  of  objects,  that  by  and  through  them 
he  may  be  led  into  a  comprehension  of  all  that  they 
embody. 

As  it  seemed  appropriate  to  consider  the  tree  in 
ornament  where  it  had  its  mythical  origin, — in  the 
Garden  of  Eden, — just  so  it  seems  not  amiss  to  formu- 


EARLY  FORMS  OF  ALTARS  COI'IED  IN   RUGS. 

late  our  opinions  about  sacred  mountains  while  in 
thought  we  are  wandering  in  the  region  of  Mount 
Ararat.  The  Garden  of  Eden  and  the  story  of  the 
Deluge  have  their  counterparts  in  the  folk-lore  of  all 
peoples.  It  has  been  given  to  the  student  of  Chinese 
symbolism  to  trace  unmistakably,  in  ornament,  the 
sacred  mountain  of  eastern  Asia,  and  to  follow  it  on  its 
migration  westward,  where,  in  the  rugs  of  Turkestan 
and  the  Caucasus  district,  as  well  as  in  certain  Persian 


154  THE   ORIENTAL   RUG   BOOK 

and  Turkish  antique  specimens,  Mongolian  influence 
is  strongly  felt.  A  symbol  that  has  to  do  with  some- 
thing people  can  understand  is  more  readily  adopted 
than  one  about  which  nothing  is  known.  On  this 
account  the  tree  and  the  mountain,  like  the  sun  and 
the  planets,  have  always  been  popularly  considered 
and  universally  adopted,  and  the  worship  of  the 
mountain  manifested  by  those  who  embroidered  its 
outlines  upon  their  garments,  and  who  called  one  of 
their  divinities  "  The  Great  Mountain,"  was  easily 
suggested  and  perchance  communicated  to  others  all 
along  the  line  of  conquest.  In  the  old  days  this 
"  Great  Mountain "  was  considered  the  god  of  the 
Tartars.  Be  this  as  it  may,  we  find  in  antique  rugs 
enough  to  verify  our  most  venturesome  belief  in  the 
meaning  and  migration  of  the  pattern.  The  sacred 
mountain  of  China,  as  it  appears  in  ornament,  is 
mythical ;  for,  while  that  land  abounds  in  mountain 
peaks  of  interest,  it  is  to  the  mountain  in  design  that 
allusion  is  here  made.  At  the  centre  of  all  things  it 
arose  from  the  ocean  of  Eternity.  It  had  to  do  with 
elemental  conditions,  and  was  the  first  material  mani- 
festation when  all  was  void.  The  mountain  in  Mon- 
golian ornament  is  often  pictured  as  having  five  peaks, 
sometimes  only  three.  As  an  emblem  in  the  hand  of 
the  "  Pearly  Emperor"  and  the  Taoist  priests,  it  is 
represented  as  a  single  peak,  as  is  also  the  case  when 
the  symbol  is  held  by  Confucius.  However  signifi- 
cant this  emblem,  together  with  the  sceptre  and  the 
fungus,  may  be  to  the  student  of  symbolism,  they 
have  in  ornament  become  known  and  verified  features, 
and    have  been  given  names  by  which  they  may  be 


SACRED    MOUNTAINS 


i55 


designated.  In  the  ornament  of  no  other  part  of  the 
world  have  single  features  been  so  perpetuated  as  in 
China,  because,  as  has 
been  before  stated, 
that  which  was  vital  in 
the  past  has  still  mean- 
ing to-day. 

In  naturalistic  repre- 
sentation, the  moun- 
tains of  the  Orient, 
from  Fujiyama  in 
Japan  to  the  Mount 
of  Olives  in    the  west, 

have  figured   in  art  and    sceptres  decorated  with  sacred 
,  .  .  ,      t1         mountains  and  constellations. 

story  ;  but,   with    the. 

exception  of  the  mythical  mountain  Sumeru,  of  Hindu 

mythology,  there  is  nothing  that  equals  in  importance 

the  Mongolian  conventionalized  representation  of  the 

sacred  mountain. 


<£^y 


"Mount  Sumeru  is  described  in  Hindu  geography  as  a  sacred 
mountain  composed  of  gold  and  gems,  situated  somewhere  in  the 
centre  of  the  earth,  which  they  supposed  to  be  flat,  like  a  round 
table.  Sumeru  is  the  residence  of  the  gods,  is  broader  at  the  top 
than  at  the  base,  and  is  yet  undiscovered  by  man.  Around  this 
mount  is  our  earth,  surrounded  by  an  ocean  of  salt  water  of  the 
same  diameter  as  the  earth.  Surrounding  this,  in  regular  succes- 
sion, always  doubling  the  diameter,  are  seven  circular  islands  and 
oceans  :  1st,  ocean,  salt  water  ;  2d,  milk  ;  3d,  curds  ;  4th,  melted 
butter;  5th,  sugar-cane  juice;  6th,  honey;  7th,  fresh  water. 
Hindu  authorities  differ  greatly  in  descriptions  of  Mount  Sumeru; 
no  two  agree  as  to  its  shape  and  dimensions.  The  Buddhists  of 
Ceylon  claim  that  Sumeru  is  of  the  same  diameter  throughout. 
Those  of  Nepal  conceive  it  to  be  shaped  like  an  Indian  drum." 


156 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


All  primitive  peoples  have  believed  that  the  souls  of 
the  righteous  mounted  to  heaven  from  the  branches 
of  trees  on  high  mountains,  and  for  this  reason 
the  mountains  are  revered,  and  are  sometimes  pic- 
tured in  early  art  as  bearing  a  crest  or  crown  of  stars. 

Star  myths  have  in  this 
way  become  intimately 
associated  with  legends  of 
mountains,  and  deities 
presiding  over  the  events 
of  life  are,  by  imaginative 
mortals,  given  special 
stars  for  their  abode.  The 
clouds,  too,  form  part  of 
the  conventionalized  orna- 
ment that  bears  directly 
upon  these  considera- 
tions;  and  one  special 
cloud  form,  which  can  be 
cloud-forms  symbolizing  deity,  traced  more  directly  than 
almost  any  other  from  the  eastern  to  the  western 
Orient,  appears  again  and  again  in  rugs  and  can  be 
vouched  for  as  a  symbol  of  the  presiding  deity, 
whether  it  be  Jew  or  Gentile,  Christian  or  Pagan,  who 
in  looking  upward  calls  upon  the  Divine. 

This  cloud  form  originally  represented  the  constel- 
lation of  Ursa  Major,  in  which,  by  the  Mongolians, 
the  Great  Ruler  was  supposed  to  reside.  In  sixteenth- 
century  carpets  the  form  of  the  constellation  and  the 
star  circles  themselves  are  preserved,  but  in  later 
copies  the  cloud  form  remains,  with  loss  of  meaning-, 
as  a  simple  ornamental   form.     The    outline   of    the 


ONE   SIDE   OF   PORCELAIN   JAR    ORNAMENTED 

WITH    THE    EIGHT    IMMORTALS 

OF    CHINA 


SACRED    MOUNTAINS 


157 


^—^ 


■8 


fungus,  or  joo-e  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  a  cloud 
form  in  ornament,  and  one  should  use  thought  in 
deciphering  and  determining  forms  and  their  deriva- 
tion and  meaning.  When  a  Mongolian  Tartar,  300 
years  ago,  wished  to  represent  Paradise,  he  threw 
over  the 
field  of  his 
rug  a  de- 
sign which 
resembled 
twisted 
ribbons 
and  flow- 
ing bands, 

which 
threaded 
their  way 
through 
n  u  m  b  e  r- 
less  cloud 
forms,  and 

which  connected  small  circles  and  discs  representing 
stars.  Celestial  beings  were  so  designated  by  their 
surroundings,  and  not  by  wings  or  halos.  One  of  the 
genii  would  be  represented  with  clouds  at  the  base 
of  the  figure,  and  a  favourite  deity  would  be  sur- 
rounded with  a  conventionalized  star  ornament  repre- 
senting his  own  special  constellation,  from  which  he 
was  supposed  to  control  the  fates  of  men.  Later 
thought  has  shown  itself  in  designs  in  old  Ispahan 
rues,  where  Mohammedan  influence  has  introduced 
and  mingled  winged  angels  and  other  symbolic  repre- 


THE 


JOO-E       SCEPTRE  AND  NATURAL  FUNGUS  FROM 
WHICH  THE  FORM  DEVELOPED. 


i58 


THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


sentations  quite  at  variance  with  the  older  thought. 
There  are  certain  famous  old  carpets  now  treasured  in 
museums  and  homes,  upon  which  is  indicated,  as 
plainly  as  though  written  in  so  many  words,  a  verdict 
by  the  weaver  like  this  : 

"  I  am  by  birth  a  Persian  Mohammedan  ;  but  I  intend  in  this 
rug  to  copy  many  old  Mongolian  devices  which  I  do  not  under- 
stand, so  I  will  faithfully  reproduce  them.  I  will,  however, 
reserve  the  corner  spaces  for  ideas  of  my  own  about  Paradise,  as 
the  designs  I  am  about  to  copy  evidently  refer  to  that  happy  place. 
I  will  also  surround  the  entire  field  of  my  rug,  in  which  I  intend 
to  weave  these  to  me  foreign  ideas,  with  pure  Persian  border 
patterns  :  in  this  way  I  shall  remain  true  to  my  birthright." 

And  the  student  must  one  day  be  so  familiar  with 
the  migration  of  ornament  that  he  shall  be  able  to  dis- 
tinguish at  a  glance  between  foreign  and  native  ele- 
ments in  the  design  in  any  fabric. 


THE  '    JOO-E  '      SCEPTRE  AS  USED  TO  EXORCISE  DEMONS 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

CAUCASIAN  RUGS 

TAKING  the  country  on  either  side  of  the  Caucasus 
Mountains,  for  the  study  of  textiles  which  are  strictly 
speaking  Caucasian,  we  find  that  the  commercialism 
of  the  present  day  has  established  methods  of  using 
the  entire  output  of  the  looms  of  the  district,  and  of 
opening  centres  for  the  sale  of  rugs  ancient  and  mod- 
ern. So  absolutely,  though,  have  the  dwellers  in  this 
part  of  Asia  adhered  to  tribal  designs,  that  the  Cau- 
casian group  of  rug  patterns  stands  to-day  more  easily 
recognised  and  authenticated  than  any  other.  Here 
we  may  study  design  not  only  in  its  purity,  but  as  it 
shows  evidence  of  Mongolian  and  Russian  thought. 
Here  we  may  stand  in  imagination  with  those  whose 
speculations  in  regard  to  natural  phenomena  led  them 
in  earliest  ages  to  make  a  visible  sign  of  definite 
thought,  and  in  the  mingling  of  elemental  motifs  with 
those  which  show  the  influence  of  many  generations 
of  Mohammedan  thought  we  find  it  possible  to  work 
our  way  through  the  centuries,  proving,  as  we  go,  that 
which  we  believe  to  be  true.  This  we  are  particu- 
larly well  able  to  do  in  old  Caucasian  fabrics,  which 
resemble  each  other  in  general  appearance  but  differ 
materially    in   detail,   the  warp   and   woof  sometimes 


160  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

showing  the  difference  between  rugs  which  have  close 
resemblance  to  each  other  in  pattern.  A  rug  may  be 
called  "Shifvan"  by  its  owner,  though  another  speci- 
men quite  like  it  in  design  is  known  as  "  Cabistan  " 
because  the  weave  is  finer  ;  and  both  of  these  may 
suggest  Daghestan  designs,  with  which  we  became 
familiar  when  first  Oriental  rugs  found  their  way  into 
this  country.  Kazak  rugs,  bearing  well-known  tribal 
designs  that  are  sometimes  claimed  to  be  Shirvan 
and  sometimes  Daghestan,  are  distinguished  from 
them  by  their  heavier  pile,  and  by  evidence  of  more 
virile  workmanship. 

Without  experience  in  handling  rugs,  the  ability  to 
note  these  differences  is  more  quickly  gained  by  close 
analysis  of  objects  than  in  any  other  way.  Given 
two  antiques  that  look  exactly  alike,  on  examination 
of  the  warp  of  one  we  find  pure  wool,  while  in  the 
other  a  thread  of  brown  wool  is  twisted  with  two 
threads  of  cotton,  and  the  knots  vary  sufficiently  to 
number  more  to  the  square  inch  in  the  first  specimen 
than  in  the  second.  Noticing  the  weft  of  the  finer 
rug,  we  find  nothing  but  wool  in  the  woof  threads, 
while,  in  the  other,  cotton  is  twisted  with  the  wool, 
and  the  surface  of  the  rug  presents  a  ruffled  appear- 
ance. Although  the  patterns  are  alike,  dealers  and 
Orientals  always  distinguish  between  textiles  that 
show  these  differences  in  weave ;  and,  while  it  is 
necessary  for  us  finally  to  make  these  distinctions, 
during  our  preliminary  study  it  is  wise  to  hold  to  the 
broad  classification  and  use  the  name  "  Caucasian  " 
until  the  sub-divisions  force  themselves  upon  us. 

Mohammedan  prayer-rugs  are  now  made  in  all  the 


,**^L*-,JTO' 


A    PAGE   OK    CAUCASIAN    BORDER    DESIGNS 


CAUCASIANRUGS  161 

well-known  patterns  of  the  district,  but,  while  they 
show  that  the  region  has  been  conquered  by  the 
sword  of  Islam,  they  fail  as  yet  to  show  any  predomi- 
nance of  the  art  motifs  of  the  Moslem's  faith.  In 
this  way  the  prayer-rugs  of  the  Caucasus  differ  so 
materially  from  Turkish  products  that  one  but  slightly 
trained  soon  distinguishes  between  them.  There  are 
certain  antiques  which  were  made  by  tribes  who  have 
so  stoutly  resisted  the  sword  of  the  followers  of  the 
Prophet,  that  they  have  fled  from  their  mountain 
homes  absolutely  impoverished  rather  than  render 
either  allegiance  or  tribute.  Such  rugs  are  valuable 
to-day  as  bearing  distinctive  features  of  tribes  that 
no  longer  exist  as  such.  Ethnologists  trace  the 
migrations  of  these  tribes  of  the  western  Caucasus 
Mountains,  in  two  directions  :  southerly  into  Turkey, 
where,  as  nomads,  they  lead  a  wandering  life,  and 
northward  into  Europe  beyond  the  Black  Sea. 

One  product  of  the  Caucasus  is  of  so  individual  a 
nature  that  it  proves  the  exception  to  all  general 
laws,  and  that  is  the  "  Soumac  "  or  "  Shemaka  "  rug. 
When  this  style  of  carpet  was  first  carried  to  Europe, 
it  was  called  by  Occidentals,  who  so  often  give  Eng- 
lish and  French  names  defining  process  to  products 
from  afar,  "  Cashmere,"  because  in  their  method  of 
weaving  these  rugs  resemble  the  shawls  made  in  the 
valley  of  Cashmere  in  India,  of  pashm  wool  of  the 
"  Cashmere  goat."  In  designs,  these  rugs  bear  evi- 
dence of  Caucasian  origin,  but  differ  absolutely  from 
any  other  known  style  of  weaving  employed  by  rug- 
makers,  as  they  have  no  raised  surface  ;  the  long  ends 
left   after  weaving  the   warp   and  woof    hang    loosely 


162  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

from   the  back  of  the  fabric,  thus  making  it  other  in 
kind  from  the  rugs  and  tapestries  of  the  Orient. 

At  the  present  time  the  Caucasus  district  is  well 
known  to  all  interested  in  Oriental  rugs,  and  under 
modern  names  its  vast  output  is  grouped.  The  three 
lakes  Van,  Urumiah,  and  Gokcha,  and  the  cities  and 
towns  near  them,  bear  names  well  known  to  the  trade, 
but  not  so  well  known  to  the  antiquarian,  who 
divides  his  rugs  into  classes  bearing  very  different 
names  from  those  used  to-day.  Large  factories  are 
now  established  where  carpets  and  rugs  of  all  sorts 
are  copied  carefully  and  well, —  so  well  that  all  art 
value  is  often  worked  out  of  them  by  the  precision  of 
present-day  labour. 

Comparison  of  the  modern  map  with  that  of  the 
sixteenth  century  will  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  changes 
which  time  and  government  are  sure  to  bring  about. 
Places  that  once  were  reached  only  by  caravan  are 
now  accessible  by  railroad,  and  every  possible  facility 
is  provided  for  weavers  to  dispose  of  their  rugs,  while 
in  a  past  not  very  remote  the  individual  weavers  were 
sought  out  by  enterprising  agents  who  secured  family 
heirlooms  and  treasures  that  now  serve  the  trade  as 
copies  for  reproduction. 

In  Caucasian  fabrics  geometric  ornament  stamps 
itself  in  set  precision  ;  we  might  almost  state  that 
unless  the  pattern  be  geometric  the  rug  examined 
cannot  be  Caucasian.  This  forces  us  to  try  to  classify 
the  details  of  geometric  ornament  very  broadly  at 
first,  before  endeavouring  to  detect  the  slight  devia- 
tions in  primitive  pattern  brought  about  by  outside 
influences  of  late  years.     In    this    way  the    different 


\  <-\  \  \  W  \ 


ANTIQUE    CABISTAN    BORDER    DESIGN    SHOWING    EVOLUTION 

FROM    ARCHAIC    PATTERN 


CAUCASIAN    RUGS  163 

types  in  Caucasian  fabrics  will  force  themselves  upon 
our  notice,  and  before  we  are  aware  we  shall  discover 
that  though  there  are  a  few  features  which  seem  to  be 
used  as  common  property,  such  as  the  eight-pointed 
star,  the  reciprocal  border  motifs,  etc.,  among  the 
people  of  different  districts,  the  methods  of  handling 
these  patterns,  and  the  preparation  of  materials  in 
each  case,  seem  to  show  some  individual  touch  which 
helps  us  to  distinguish  between  rugs  in  which  at  first 
we  discovered  only  strong  likenesses. 

Into  eight  divisions,  and  only  eight,  does  it  seem 
wise  for  our  special  purposes  to  group  the  rugs  of  the 
Caucasian  district : — 

Daghestan,  Derbend,  Kabistan,  Shirvan,  Shemakha, 
Karabagh,  Kazak,  and  Tchechen  (Chichi  or  Tzitzi). 

These  are  the  names  given  to  these  eight  styles, 
and  whether  the  weavers  are  dwellers  in  the  towns  or 
wanderers  in  the  mountains  they  are  apt  to  adhere  to 
certain  tribal  patterns  which  we  soon  learn  to  know 
as  such. 

©aobestan     [Anti?ue  Daghestan    rugs   were  made 
-,-    _  ot  wool,    and    were    well    made.       1  ney 

1KIUJS  ..,_.....  .  . 

were  marked  on  in  divisions  that  seemed 

very  different,  when  first  we  saw  them,  from  the 
markings  in  other  fabrics.  Medallions  and  octag- 
onal forms  appealed  greatly  to  our  imaginations 
when  we  were  first  told  that  such  designated  not  only 
where  the  host  and  his  guests  should  sit,  but  in  vari- 
ous ways  had  tribal  significance.  These  outline  forms 
were  later  bereft  of  all  meaning  when  changing  cus- 
toms  multiplied  them  in  numbers  and  distributed 
them   in  broadened  and  flattened  lozenge  and  octagon 


1 64  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

shapes,  surrounded  by  angular  hooks  and  serrated 
edges,  upon  oblong  rugs.  In  small  rugs,  of  which 
many  were  prayer-rugs,  a  crossing  of  the  entire  field 
with  a  sort  of  trellis  gave  numberless  diamond  forms 
in  which  were  generally  to  be  found  geometric  tree 
designs.  In  the  borders  an  arrangement  of  angles 
and  squares  gave  first  one  and  then  another  set  of 
decorative  forms,  a  few  of  which  have,  strictly  speak- 
ing, become  more  historic  than  others.  In  fact,  in 
antique  Daghestan  rugs  we  find  one  of  the  fullest 
manifestations  of  the  triangle  that  has  been  preserved 
for  us  in  the  art  of  Asia,  and  it  is  possible  to  break  up 
any  of  the  old  designs  of  this  region  into  its  parts, 
which  will  always,  even  when  presented  in  block, 
cube,  or  star  form,  present  the  right-angled  triangle 
as  base.  This  of  course  gives  us  the  eight-pointed 
star  in  the  ornament  of  that  region,  which  differs  from 
the  zodiacal  or  twelve-sided  figure  of  the  Chaldeans, 
and  from  the  ensoph  of  the  Hebrews  shown  in  the 
shield  of  David. 

A  strong  Mongolian  influence  is  felt  in  Daghestan 
patterns,  and  perhaps  helps  us  more  than  anything 
else  to  recognize  the  designs  of  that  district.  Dag- 
hestan, it  should  be  remembered,  is  a  district  or  prov- 
ince, and  one  of  the  most  northerly  of  any  known 
to  us  as  specially  connected  with  rug-production. 
Daghestan  rugs  should  be  studied  architecturally,  for 
the  distribution  of  octagon  and  medallion  forms  was 
at  first  indicative  of  floor  spacing,  and  in  old  Russian 
adaptations  of  Mongolian  ideas,  even  in  the  construc- 
tion of  cathedrals,  special  attention  was  paid  to  the 
relation  of  one    form  to   another.     The  tent-roofs  of 


CAUCASIAN    RUGS    AND    BORDER    DESIGNS 


CAUCASIAN     RUGS  165 

Turkestan  were  often  divided  into  eight  sections  orna- 
mented with  set  patterns  which  were  later  copied 
upon  the  ceilings  of  tombs  and  the  domes  of  cathe- 
drals. The  tomb  has  always  preserved  more  accu- 
rately than  anything  else  the  absolute  expression  of 
thought  in  art.  An  individual  who  might  borrow  for 
the  decoration  of  some  meaningless  article  the  pat- 
terns of  neighbouring  tribes  would  be  very  careful,  in 
making  a  pall,  to  adhere  to  tribal  patterns.  In  the 
grave  carpets  of  the  Caucasus  are  found  designs  that 
were  once  the  repositories  of  belief.  In  form  these 
rugs  are  many  of  them  like  prayer-rugs,  but  are  very 
long  and  narrow,  with  the  niche  at  the  extreme  end 
of  the  attenuated  panel. 

Derbend  rugs  resemble  those  of  Daghestan,  but  are 
distinguished  from  them  by  minor  points  unnecessary, 
for  ordinary  purposes,  for  us  to  investigate.  It  is 
only  honest  to  say  that  of  the  weavings  of  this  quarter 
learned  experts  give  varying  opinions,  so  that  it  is 
unwise  to  force  the  frail  bark  of  the  novice  into  too 
deep  water.  It  is  universally  asserted  that  in  old 
Daghestans  the  warp  and  weft  is  more  apt  to  be  wool 
than  is  always  found  to  be  the  case  in  Shirvan  pro- 
ducts, where,  particularly  in  the  weft  threads,  one  or 
two  strands  of  cotton  will  be  twisted  with  one  strand 
of  wool  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  finished  rug  to 
pucker  most  objectionably.  The  sides  of  Daghestan 
rugs  are  generally  overcast  with  coloured  wools. 

.  Kabistan  (Kuban)   rugs    are    full  of    in- 

-I  terest    as  showing    the  attempt  to  render 

"  geometric  ornament    in    a    floral    manner, 

and  the  weavings  are  so  full  of  character  and  interest 


1 66  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

that  we  soon  become  accustomed,  in  handling  them, 
to  classify  them  correctly.  The  use  of  a  border  design 
which  has  gone  through  many  vicissitudes  since 
it  started  in  a  northern  province  of  Persia,  in  the 
long  ago,  as  a  strictly  floral  rendering  of  the  beautiful 
single  pink,  so  well  known  as  a  Persian  motif,  finds  in 
the  Kabistan  weavings  a  most  interesting  expression 
in  geometric  form  ;  and  the  water  pattern,  in  which  at 
first  veritable  fishes  were  found  naturalistically  por- 
trayed, has  been  converted  into  a  broad  band  decora- 
tion of  stripes  and  dots.  This  border  often  surrounds 
a  field  strewn  with  large  effulgent  stars  which  are 
quite  different  from  other  star  forms  in  appearance. 
At  the  extreme  centre  of  these  forms  is  generally 
found  a  small  elongated  star  arranged  upon  a  diamond 
shield  from  which  project  lines  which  suggest  crossed 
weapons.  From  this  whole  centre  a  burst  of  radi- 
ance fills  out  a  large  figure  which,  though  bounded  by 
broken  outlines,  suggests  in  the  main  a  star  form. 
These  "  effulgent  stars  "  are  so  disposed  upon  the 
field  of  the  rug  as  to  bring  different  colours  in  such 
order  as  to  produce  diagonal  stripings.  In  fact  it  is 
a  Kabistan  feature  to  use  diagonal  ornamentation  in 
both  border  and  field  patterns.  In  beautiful  old 
specimens  of  these  rugs  the  warp  is  of  dark-brown 
wool  of  natural  tones,  and  the  knot  yarn  is  of  the 
softest  quality;  the  finished  pile  being  so  closely 
clipped  as  to  render  the  Kabistan  weavings  the  thin- 
est  and  most  flexible  of  any  of  the  Caucasus  district. 
In  old  Kuban  (Kabistan)  weavings  are  treasured  time- 
honoured  designs,  and  very  occasionally  an  antique 
specimen  is  found,  in  which  the  field,  worked  in  very 


mmm 


i.    AMULET    ORNAMENTED     WITH     SIN-POINTED    STAR,     2.     DESIGNS 

FORMED   OF   SQUARES,   3.   STAR-FORM    RASED   ON   RIGHT-ANGLED 

TRIANGLE,  4.  STAR  BASED  ON   EQUILATERAL   TRIANGLE 


CAUCASIAN    RUGS  167 

dark  blue  crossed  with  a  tan  lattice,  elicits  the  warm 
admiration  of  its  owner. 

G,..  Daghestan    and    Shirvan    rugs     resemble 

5IMCV&U  1.1  1       1  1  1       4. 

each  other  very  closely,  and  one  has  to  con- 

IKUCjb*  sider  and  balance  very  fine  distinctions  when 
deciding  between  them.  The  types  of  traditional 
purity  which  have  been  preserved  in  prayer-rugs  have 
been  copied  again  and  again  of  late  years  with  poor 
materials  and  wretched  dyes,  so  that  it  were  better  if 
time-honoured  patterns  had  passed  away  with  the  finer 
weavings  of  other  days  in  order  that  antique  speci- 
mens might  remain  distinctive. 

It  is  not  unusual  to  see,  in  very  old  designs  of  the 
Shirvan  district,  great  variety  in  the  narrow  border 
stripes  that  appear  on  sometimes  one  but  oftener  on 
both  sides  of  the  broad  stripe  in  which  tribal  pattern 
is  invariably  found.  In  these  narrow  stripes  highly 
conventionalized  flower  forms  are  stiffly  arranged, 
but  without  attempt  at  the  connecting-line  or  meander 
effect  noticed  in  Kabistan  patterns.  The  fringe  of 
Shirvan  rugs  is  usually  tied  and  falls  in  loose  ends. 

There  are  four  patterns  that  more  than  any  others 
appear  in  border  stripes  of  Caucasian  rugs  ;  these  are 
the  "tarantula,"  the  "hooked  swastika,"  the  "recipro- 
cal trefoil,"  and  the  "tree  pattern."  Of  these  the 
first  and  second  may  be  traced  to  Daghestan,  where, 
with  the  "  link-in-lozenge  "  and  the  large  S  pattern, 
they  find  expression  in  old  rugs  and  lend  designs 
freely  to  Kabistan  and  Shirvan  weavers,  while  Kara- 
bagh  and  Kazak  weavings  claim  the  other  two  de- 
signs. Like  all  other  motifs  of  the  district,  however, 
these  are  interchangeable,  and    we  are    thrown   upon 


i68  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

details  of  method  and  weaving  to  settle  the  disputed 
origin  of  fabrics. 

Sbemafeba       A11  tlie  scattered  motifs  of  ornament 
/d^«,«Q^       with  wllich  the  Caucasian  district  abounds 

Tkasbmir)     SCem  "  gathered  together  by 

the    weavers    of    the    flat-stitch    carpets 
J  known  for  a  long  time    as    "  Cashmere " 

rugs.  All  the  designs  found  in  the  knot  carpets 
made  to  the  north  and  to  the  south  of  Shemakha  are 
woven  in  these  fabrics,  but  particularly  are  two 
Mongolian  designs  perpetuated  in  old  Soumacs, — the 
"  mountain  "  and  the  "  knot  of  destiny."  These  two 
patterns  are  skilfully  woven  and  are  almost  universally 
found  in  antique  rugs  as  tribal  patterns  in  very  truth. 
Because  of  the  similarity  of  weave  in  these  rugs  to 
camel's-hair  shawls  they  were  erroneously  dubbed 
"  Cashmere  "  ;  for,  as  the  shawls  came  from  the  Vale 
of  Cashmere,  why  not  the  carpets?  It  is  now  many 
years  since  the  mistake  was  made  and  corrected,  and 
among  the  weavings  of  the  Caucasus,  both  ancient 
and  modern,  nothing  of  more  interest  or  value  exists. 
The  long  ends  which  hang  from  the  backs  of  the  rugs 
give  weight  and  a  clinging  quality,  both  of  which  de- 
sirable features  make  it  possible  for  these  tapestries  to 
serve  as  satisfactory  floor-coverings. 
Ikarabaab  Karabagh  rugs  are  at  their  very  best 
IRlias  when  there  may  be  detected  in  them  an 

evident  intention  to  copy  the  gloss  and 
sheen  of  a  leopard's  skin,  and  in  some  antique  speci- 
mens we  find  the  black  and  tan  spots  freely  disposed 
over  the  field  of  the  rug  in  such  a  way  as  clearly  to 
indicate  the  intent  of  the  weaver.     Both  this  pattern 


CAUCASIAN     RUGS  169 

and  perfection  of  weave  are,  however,  rare,  and  only 
by  way  of  making  it  possible  for  the  mind  quickly  to 
grasp  an  idea  of  the  quality  of  the  earliest  and  best 
Karabagh  weaves  is  attention  called  to  rare  fabrics 
now  almost  impossible  to  obtain.  The  output  of  the 
district  into  which  we  are  led  by  examination  of 
fabrics  that  bear  resemblance  to  and  yet  differ  from 
Daghestan  and  Shirvan  weaves  consists  at  the  present 
time,  as  it  has  for  the  past  century  or  more,  of  a 
strange  mingling  of  ideas  and  methods  in  the  rugs 
made  and  sold.  Loose,  careless  knotting  and  hasty 
work  at  times  show  great  deterioration,  and  still  there 
is  an  undeniable  charm  about  Karabagh  weavings. 
Both  Persian  and  Turcoman  influences  are  felt  in 
designs  ;  and  these  may  be  easily  accounted  for, 
because  of  the  location  of  the  district  midway  be- 
tween the  north  and  the  south,  where,  during  former 
Persian  rule  and  later  Russian  possession,  thought  and 
style  have  been  successively  dominated. 
^         .  Heavv  beyond  all  the  fabrics  of    the  dis- 

trict,  Kazak  rugs  may  be  grouped  as  coarse 
*  nomad  products  ;  but  their  interest  and  value 
to  the  collector  and  the  student  is  very  great,  for  they 
show  a  virility  which  is  found  only  when  methods 
are  crude  and  ideas  unfettered.  We  knew  of  the 
"  Cossacks  "  as  horsemen  in  central  Asia  long  before 
we  had  become  familiar  with  Oriental  rugs,  but  to 
wanderers  and  skilled  riders  the  name  "  Kazak " 
belongs,  and  tribes  dwelling  in  the  mountains  of  the 
Caucasus  adhere  to  old  ideas  there,  as  wherever  they 
roam  and  settle.  It  is  first,  last,  and  always  the 
intent  of  those  who  make  rugs  for  their  own   use  to 


i7o  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

continue  in  well-established  ways,  and  to  perpetuate 
tribal  patterns.  Such  are  more  or  less  necessary 
when  personal  property  is  indicated  by  marks  put 
upon  it  to  distinguish  it  from  that  which  belongs  to 
another.  Were  it  possible  for  us  to  do  so,  we  might 
without  doubt  find  on  vast  numbers  of  Oriental  rugs 
tiny  devices  which  look  to  us  like  fragments  of  pat- 
tern, but  which  are  in  truth  marks  of  ownership. 

Broadly  speaking,  Kazak  rugs  are  heavy,  and  are 
tied  with  fewer  stitches  to  the  square  inch  than  other 
rugs  of  the  Caucasus.  A  rare  quality  about  the 
wool  or  hair  used  causes  it  to  untwist,  when  the  knot 
ends  are  cut,  into  numberless  single  hairs,  so  that  one 
knot-end  will  separate  into  upward  of  200  parts, 
making  upon  the  surface  almost  a  smooth  effect  not- 
withstanding the  great  length  of  the  nap  and  the  few 
knots  tied  on  an  inch  length  of  the  warp.  In  modern 
Turkish  carpets,  in  which  the  knots  are  made  of 
materials  prepared  by  mechanical  apparatus,  there  is 
never  this  feature  which  so  distinguishes  the  heavy 
Kazak  weaves  of  the  Caucasus,  making  them  beauti- 
ful, substantial,  and  lustrous. 

Wandering  mountaineers  north  of  the  Caucasus 
range  have  given  to  the  nomad  products  of  that  quar- 
7-ft  .  ter  a  different  element  in  design  from  those 
^  adopted  bv  the  Kazaks  of  the  trans-Caucasus 

J  *  region.  A  crude  rendering  of  animal  and 
human  forms  is  shown  in  these  rugs,  which  adhere  in 
the  main  to  Daghestan  styles,  but  which  in  antique 
specimens  show  many  Mohammedan  devices.  In 
their  prayer-rugs,  the  comb,  and  the  spot  upon  which 
to  place  the  bit  of  sacred  earth  brought  from   Mecca, 


NORSK   DESIGNS  SHOWING   FORMS  OF    llll.  SUN  BOAT 
AND  ARRANGEMENT  <>F  THEM    IN   BORDERS 


CAUCASIAN    RUGS  171 

are  almost  invariably  worked  with  other  Moslem 
symbols.  In  the  latticed  field  of  old  Tzitzi  rugs  the 
tree  pattern  is  found  most  geometrically  drawn,  and  the 
fringe  extends  from  a  webbing  not  unlike  that  known 
as  "Turcoman,"  upon  which  an  outline  pattern  in 
knots  is  sometimes  tied. 

At  the  present  time  the  rugs  of  the  Caucasus  are 
made  to  order  in  such  great  quantities  that  wherever 
we  roam  we  meet  and  may  study  them  in  hotel 
corridors,  office  buildings,  and  in  our  homes,  where 
they  wear  well  and  are  most  useful.  They  are  invalu- 
able in  the  study  of  ornament  ;  for  as  yet  the  designs 
are  apt  to  be  the  same  as  they  have  ever  been,  or  in 
any  event  the  line  is  distinct  between  designs  which 
are  native  and  those  which  are  borrowed,  and  the 
day  is  not  far  distant  when  the  student  panoplied  with 
courage  will  dare  to  distinguish  between  them. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

PERSIAN   RUGS 

ALTHOUGH  robbed  of  many  of  its  chief  depend- 
encies by  the  inroads  of  rival  governments  and  the 
march  of  empire,  we  still  find  Persia  the  most  poetic 
of  lands,  and  its  weavings  the  choicest  of  fabrics. 
The  physical  aspect  of  the  "  Land  of  the  Lion  and 
the  Sun  "  shows  the  vivid  contrasts  that  are  to  be 
found  when  a  land  depends  largely  on  irrigation  for 
its  beauty,  and  its  gardens,  like  none  others  in  the 
world,  from  which  sun-flecked  mountain  peaks  are 
faintly  visible,  have  been  portrayed  in  softest  wools 
and  shimmering  silk.  The  rugs  of  Persia,  in  their 
varied  characteristics,  combine  the  strength  and  viril- 
ity of  the  art  of  the  hill-dwellers  and  mountaineers 
with  the  high  attainment,  in  a  fully  developed  art  and 
thought,  which  can  be  reached  only  in  the  life  of 
cities  and  towns. 

There  have  been  periods  in  the  art  of  Persia  when 
so  great  a  perfection  has  been  reached  that  nothing  has 
ever  since  either  equalled  or  excelled  it.  A  recurrence 
to  types,  then  established,  is  the  constant  effort  of 
modern  craftsmen.  Such  was  the  glorious  reign  of 
Shah  Abbas*  in  the  sixteenth  and   seventeenth  cen- 


*  Crowned,  1586;  died,  1628. 


PERSIANRUGS  173 

turiesj  and  such  we  shall  find  it  wise  to  accept  as  the 
pivot  upon  which  the  history  of  the  art  revolves. 

It  is  quite  impossible  to  think  of  Persia  apart  from 
Mohammedan  rule,  and  yet  much  that  is  most  truly 
Persian  has  no  Moslem  motif  about  it.  In  fact,  the 
religion  of  Zoroaster  has  left  its  ineffaceable  imprint 
upon  much  that  even  pious  Mohammedans  to-day 
have  adopted  and  incorporated  in  their  scheme  of 
ornament.  The  flowery  and  poetic  imagination  of 
the  Persian  found  in  the  imagery  of  the  ancient  fire- 
worshippers  much  that  could  easily  be  depicted  in 
art  ;  the  tall  cypress  indicative  of  immortality  ;  the 
cone,  or  flame  ;  the  fire-twigs,  and  fire  motifs  of  all 
kinds.  These,  as  empty  forms,  were  carried  east  and 
west  by  the  Saracens  and  formed  the  basis  of  many 
designs  now  known  all  over  the  world  as  Moham- 
medan, although  they  were  adopted,  not  invented,  by 
grasping  conquerors.  All  these  considerations  must 
control  our  opinions  as  we  approach  the  study  of  the 
textiles  of  Persia.  They  are  difficult  to  classify, 
standing  as  we  do  at  the  result  of  all  the  ages  with 
scant  information  at  the  best  ;  but  each  year  brings 
greater  opportunity  for  independent  research,  and 
new  thought  is  constantly  furnishing  us  with  tests  to 
apply  to  our  own  opinions. 

The  designs  of  Persia  may  be  described  as  "  floral," 
and  the  naturalistic  and  conventional  treatment  of 
the  flowers  of  Iran  command  the  intelligent  apprecia- 
tion of  all  who  have  educated  themselves  to  recognize 
the  rare  qualities  of  an  art  which  disguises  its  method 
so  that  a  new  creation  seems  to  result  from  conven- 
tionalization.     In  this  way  Persian  art  is  itself  utterly 


c 


174  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

unlike  all  attempts  of  modern  schools  of  design  to 
copy  it.  The  flowers  that  the  ancient  studied  for 
curves,  and  grouped  alternately  and  in  set  patterns 
over  the  fields  of  their  rugs,  rarely,  if  ever,  show  the 
hampering  control  of  fidelity  to  the  original,  or 
indebtedness  to  it  for  more  than  suggestion.  There 
is  none  of  that  balancing  and  facing,  inside-out  and 
upside-down  rendering  of  a  single  motif  of  ornament 
which  characterizes  modern  Occidental  efforts,  and 
symmetry  is  reached  through  the  perfect  distribution 
of  unlike  motifs,  leaving  each  individual  to  supply 
with  his  imagination  new  features  that  will  be  unlike 
hose  chosen  by  others. 

The  Mohammedan  utilized  much  in  Persian  art  that 
lent  itself  to  the  arabesque  style  of  conventionaliza- 
tion, but  it  never  wrested  from  those  who  successfully 
developed  the  absolute  in  floral  arrangement  the  dis- 
tinctive features  which  we  recognize  as  Persian  wher- 
ever we  find  them.  The  superimposed  ornament  of 
Persia,  however,  is  Mohammedan,  and  again  and  again 
we  find  trailing  over  the  ancient  ornament  of  Iran  the 
Arabic  letters  and  tracery  that  bespeak  the  later  art. 

The  gardens  of  Persia  make  glad  that  country 
where  to  while  away  the  hours  where  it  seems  "  always 
afternoon  "  has,  above  many  more  laudable  aims,  dis-. 
tinguished  the  natures  of  those  who  dwell  in  the 
languorous  East,  and  to  understand  the  general  make- 
up of  the  people  is  to  have  much  light  thrown  on  the 
designs  in  many  rugs.  "  Garden  rugs  "  are  sometimes 
designed  so  accurately  that  paths,  borders,  and  streams 
are  easily  distinguished.  The  custom  of  procuring 
water  from  the  hill  makes  it  necessary  to  dig  trenches, 


MUG-FLATE   XXIII 


SHIRAZ  RUG 


BUG-PLATE   XXIII 


SHIRAZ  RUG 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

/f  RARELY  beautiful  example  of  antique 
■^       Shir uz  weaving" 

Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat. 

Author's  Description 

In  studying  rugs  analytically  it  is  most  desir- 
able to  have  a  number  of  examples  typical  of 
the  weaving  of  special  localities.  Examination 
of  the  make-up  of  the  leaf  ornament  distributed 
over  the  field  of  this  rug  shows  it  to  be  of  com- 
posite gem-like  nature  and  on  the  "  crown-jewel  " 
order.  The  drooping  tip  of  the  leaf  form  turns 
to  the  right  and  left  in  alternate  lines  across 
the  field,  and  in  the  broad  border  stripe  the  same 
idea  is  maintained.  In  other  Shiraz  rugs  are 
to  be  found  entirely  different  arrangements  of 
the  so-called  "palm-leaf'1''  ornament. 


RUG-PLATE   XX11I 


X 


PERSIAN    RUGS  175 

through  which  the  public  water  supply  is  allowed  to 
flow  into  the  gardens  for  a  certain  time  each  day,  and 
in  order  that  each  quarter  of  the  enclosure  may  be 
reached,  the  trenches  are  artistically  and  symmetric- 
ally arranged  in  the  midst  of  the  flowers,  sometimes 
forming  a  cross  in  pattern.  Raised  paths  are  also 
made  to  observe  different  forms,  and  the  borders  of 
these  paths  are  made  picturesque  by  ground-vines  and 
creeping  moss.  The  custom  of  filling  in  one  division 
with  one  sort  of  flower,  and  another  with  a  different 
sort,  is  not  so  closely  copied  in  rugs  as  in  the  embroi- 
dered textiles  of  Persia,  and  illustrations  painted  in 
words  are  found  in  the  records  of  travellers  who 
describe  that  upon  which  their  eyes  have  feasted. 
Lord  Curzon  has  written  : 

"  The  character  of  Persian  gardens  is  different  from  European. 
From  the  outside  a  square  or  oblong  enclosure  is  visible,  sur- 
rounded by  high  mud  walls,  over  the  top  of  which  appears  a  dense 
bouquet  of  trees.  The  inside  is  thickly  planted  with  lofty  cypress, 
broad-spreading  chenawrs,  tough  elms,  straight  ash,  knotty  pines, 
fragrant  masticks,  kingly  oaks,  sweet  myrtles,  and  useful  maples. 
They  are  planted  down  the  sides  of  long  alleys,  admitting  of  no 
view  but  a  vista,  the  surrounding  plots  being  a  jungle  of  bushes 
and  shrubs.  Water  courses  along  in  channels,  or  is  conducted 
into  tanks.  Sometimes  these  gardens  rise  in  terraces  to  a  pavilion 
at  the  summit,  whose  reflection  in  the  pool  below  is  regarded  as 
a  triumph  of  landscape  gardening.  Such  beauty  as  arises  from 
shade  and  the  purling  of  water  the  Persian  requires." 

Many  writers  have  described  the  famous  carpet 
taken  as  booty  by  an  early  conqueror,  which  was 
wrought  into  a  "  paradise  "  or  garden  with  the  finest 
of  silk,  and — 


i76  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

— "  with  jewels  of  the  most  costly  and  curious  species,  which  were 
arranged  with  such  consummate  skill  as  to  represent,  in  beautiful 
mosaic,  trees,  fruits,  and  flowers;  rivulets  and  fountains;  roses 
and  shrubs  of  every  description,  which  combined  their  fragrance 
and  their  foliage  to  charm  the  senses  of  the  beholders.  This 
piece  of  exquisite  luxury  and  illusion,  to  which  the  Persians  give 
the  name  of  '  Baharistan '  or  the  mansion  of  perpetual  spring, 
was  an  invention  of  monarchs  as  an  artificial  substitute  for  that 
loveliest  of  seasons,  spring.  During  the  gloom  of  winter  they 
were  accustomed  to  regale  themselves  on  this  magnificent  em- 
broidery, where  art  supplied  the  absence  of  nature,  and  where 
guests  might  trace  a  brilliant  imitation  of  her  faded  jewels."  * 

Water  running  over  coloured  tiles  furnishes  another 
subject  for  naturalistic  treatment,  and  different  water 
motifs  are  often  copied  in  modern  fabrics  from  ancient 
rugs,  though,  when  handled  by  workers  in  other  coun- 
tries, the  old  method  is  not  fully  carried  out.  When 
we  find  the  "  zig-zag  "  in  its  perfection  in  old  Persian 
carpets,  we  may  note  how  it  changes  its  colour  as  it 
finds  its  way  through  the  border  of  a  rug,  the  back- 
ground of  which  is  also  made  to  vary  in  colour  and 
we  can  readily  imagine  the  colouring  of  the  tiles  over 
which  the  water  coursed.  After  studying  the  water 
designs  in  old  rugs  one  becomes  somewhat  impatient 
with  modern  spiritless  work,  where  vivid  contrasts  are 
made  to  take  the  place  of  the  iridescent,  evanescent 
qualities  in  antique  weavings. 

Not  only  the  flower-strewn  gardens  and  the  shady 
groves,  but  the  flowers  themselves  were  treated  signifi- 
cantly* by  those  who  formerly  worked  with  almost 
religious  fervour  to  perpetuate  in  wool  what  they 
most  highly  cherished.     Tulips,  roses,  and  lilies  were 


*  Crichton's  "  History  of  Arabia." 


PERSIAN    RUGS  177 

appropriately  combined,  and  the  Salaams  or  "  thought- 
bouquets  "  of  Persia  were  reproduced  in  strict  con- 
formity to  native  ideas.  These  were  stiff  and  formal, 
and  sometimes  the  flowers  themselves-  were  decorated 
with  tissue  paper,  and  "  gilding  the  lily "  was  not 
unusual.  The  heads  of  flowers  have  always  been 
popular  for  table-decoration  in  Persia,  and  "  forms  of 
beauty "  made  by  the  careful  arrangement  of  blos- 
soms in  pattern  has  called  for  a  separate  class  for  this 
style  of  ornamentation. 

The  naturalistic  ways  of  representing  these  things 
were  later  conventionalized,  and  water-lines  and 
fountain  and  flower  forms  were  used  instead  of  more 
accurate  copies  of  natural  things.  In  the  sixteenth 
century  use  was  made  of  pronounced  ornament  in 
structural  fashion,  each  floral  form  being  connected 
by  a  framework  of  vines  and  curves  with  another  like 
itself  elsewhere  in  the  field  of  the  rug,  the  rosette  and 
palmette  shapes  balanced  by  others  distributed  grace- 
fully but  with  evident  intent. 

The  love  of  hunting  is  strongly  developed  in  the 
Persian,  and  the  animals  used  and  slain  in  the  chase 
are  often  depicted  in  their  famous  hunting  rugs, 
together  with  trophies  innumerable. 

Some  of  the  natural  processes  of  nature  which  have 
called  for  the  co-operation  of  man  have  from  time 
immemorial  given  motifs  for  design.  Among  these 
the  fertilization  of  the  date  is  carried  on  now  as  it 
was  centuries  ago,  and  the  most  casual  observers  of 
modern  practice  may  see  that  which  inspired  the 
ancients  with  awe.  They  drew  upon  their  artistic 
instinct  to  portray  it  in  the  form    of  an  eagle-headed 


i78  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

deity,  who,  carrying  a  basket  in  one  hand  and  a  palm- 
spathe  in  the  other,  approached  the  sacred  tree  to 
perform  the  customary  ceremonies.  In  the  cottons 
and  chintzes  of  Ispahan  we  often  find  these  old  cus- 
toms depicted  in  roughly  drawn  and  crude  designs. 

These  brief  considerations  are  of  the  manners  and 
customs  of  a  people  whose  productions  we  know,  but 
often  try  to  interpret  with  our  own  ideas,  thus  failing 
utterly  to  comprehend  what  might  reveal  itself  to  our 
more  carefully  trained  eyes  and  judgment.  The  task 
is  no  sinecure  to  throw  ourselves  unreservedly  into 
the  ways  of  other  peoples  in  order  to  understand  that 
which  they  have  manifested  in  their  art,  but  until  we 
do  we  shall  but  half  know  the  pleasure  to  be  derived 
from  quiet  contemplation  of  that  which  was,  until 
distorted  and  destroyed  by  modern  commercialism,  a 
revelation  of  the  instincts  and  interests  of  those  who 
knew  how  to  copy  in  art  that  which  they  revered  in 
nature. 

In  Persian  rugs  we  stand  face  to  face  with  definite 
styles,  and  can  classify  and  arrange  these  styles  with 
precision  so  as  to  locate  them  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  thus  carrying  analytical  study  to  its  fullest 
extent.  If  the  rugs  here  in  our  homes  can  reveal 
their  origin  to  us,  it  is  of  interest  to  us  to  know  what 
their  origin  is,  and  to  be  led  by  such  revelation  to  a 
comparative  study  of  the  history  and  migration  of 
designs.  According  to  our  own  knowledge  we  shall 
be  able  to  discover  how  true  to  tradition  the  weavers 
were,  and  how  modern  variants  of  famous  old  patterns 
may  be  distinguished,  not  only  from  the  old,  but  from 
each  other. 


PERSIAN     RUGS  179 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  dispossess  our  minds  of 
all  information  concerning  Persian  fabrics  in  order  to 
build  up  opinions  afresh,  for  during  the  last  half-cen- 
tury, Persian  rugs,  by  reason  of  their  merit,  have 
forced  their  way  into  all  well-to-do  homes,  and  have 
been  classed  as  "  floral,"  and  distinctively  different 
from  Turkish  rugs.  This  classification  is,  of  course, 
the  broadest  that  can  be  made,  but  until  the  rug- 
owner  becomes  a  student  it  is  marvellous  to  see  how 
well  satisfied  he  remains  with  little  knowledge. 

There  comes  a  day,  however,  when  the  rug  upon 
the  floor  shows  signs  of  wear,  and  the  grave  question 
arises  whether  or  not  to  buy  another  like  it.  The 
auction-room  is  haunted,  but  only  occasionally  is  a 
small  rug  found  that  seems  to  resemble  the  fireside 
treasure,  and  then  a  fabulous  price  is  asked  for  it,  and 
the  information  vouchsafed  by  the  vendor  to  the 
effect  that  only  old  Iran  rugs  bring  such  prices. 
Attention  is  called  to  the  number  of  stitches  to  the 
inch  and  the  fineness  of  the  wool  and  now  the  aroused 
student  hurries  back  to  his  home  to  apply  to  his  own 
possession  his  newly  acquired  methods  of  analysis. 
Yes,  surely  there  are  far  more  stitches  than  in  the 
Turkish  rug  in  the  library,  and  the  yarn  is  fine  ;  the 
warp  thread  is  cotton,  and  the  pattern  is  certainly 
floral ;  but  something  else  is  now  apparent  to  the 
newly-opened  eye  :  there  is  a  definite  arrangement  of 
motifs, — the  pattern  is  the  same,  an  "  Iran  "  pattern, 
as  the  Oriental  dealer  called  it. 

So  the  Persian  rug  is  cleaned  and  given  a  more 
important  place  than  it  had  before,  where  it  will  have 
less  wear,  and  the  student  sets  out  to  secure  a  rough- 


iSo  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

usage  fabric  that  will  serve  as  hearth-rug.  To  one  of 
the  numberless  places  where  only  antiques  are  obtain- 
able he  carries  his  limited  knowledge  and  asks  if  he 
can  be  shown  some  old  Persian  rugs.  Several  are 
thrown  upon  the  floor,  no  two  alike,  and  to  each  one 
is  given  the  name  "  Iran  "  until  in  despair  the  student 
begs  to  know  why  they  are  so  called,  and  learns  that 
"  Iran,"  the  ancient  name  for  Persia,  is  given  to  rare 
textiles  made  after  time-honoured  designs  woven 
according  to  strictly  Persian  methods.  Such  a  pre- 
lude to  the  analytic  study  of  objects  is  not  uncom- 
mon, and  by  these  means  one  is  brought  into  such 
relations  with  the  "woven  books  "  of  the  Orient  that 
the  determination  is  formed  to  learn  to  read  them. 
How  S'hall  the  student  proceed  ? 

In  the  first  place,  the  broadening  of  the  horizon 
shows  at  a  glance  that  limited  knowledge  has  here- 
tofore confined  even  one's  imagination,  and  that 
Persian  ornament  must  of  course  vary  according 
to  locality  ;  also  that  though  Persia's  possessions 
have  been  wrested  from  her,  her  crafts  are  still 
distinctively  Iranian.  Again,  proximity  to  Eastern 
countries  naturally  affects  designs,  and  Turcoman 
influences  are  strongly  felt.  The  patronage  of  royalty 
through  the  centuries  has  also  done  much  to  per- 
petuate old  patterns  and  methods.  After  these  reflec- 
tions one  feels  prepared  to  think  of  the  products 
that  have  made  and  still  make  Persia  the  home  of 
the  knot-carpet. 

Now  it  makes  all  the  difference  in  the  world 
whether  the  student  fell  heir  to  these  reflections 
twenty-five    years    ago    or    within    the    last    decade ; 


MUG-PLATE  XXIV 


DAGHESTAN  RUG 


RUG-PLATE  XXIV 


DAGHESTAN  RUG 


Author's  Description 


TN  this  antique  Daghestan  rug  the  designs 
-*■  are  tribal,  and  consist  chiefly  of  unrelated 
forms  and  motifs  which  in  nomadic  fashion  ad- 
here to  accepted  rides  and  regulations  only  when 
quite  convenient  for  the  weaver  to  do  so.  The 
angular  fashion  of  rendering  the  forms  in  the 
broad  border  stripe,  the  filling  in  the  corners 
with  odd  conceits,  and  the  scattering  of  the  star- 
forms  in  the  outer  and  inner  border  stripes,  com- 
bine with  other  general  features  to  distinguish 
this  old  rug  above  its  fellows.  The  double  prayer- 
niche  is  explained  by  Orientals  to  signify  either 
a  marriage-rug  or  a  rug  for  children.  It  is 
evidently  intended  for  the  use  of  two  worship- 
pers. 


RUG-PLATE   XXIV 


PERSIAN     RUGS  1S1 

for  within  a  very  few  years  new  names  have  arisen  in 
places  of  commercial  importance  and  the  choicest 
rugs  of  the  empire  are  being  copied,  and,  under 
modern  names  and  trade  classifications,  sold  to-day. 
Twenty-five  years  ago  the  rug  added  to  the  collection 
of  the  student  to  whom  we  have  just  alluded  might 
have  been  a  "  Kirman,"  a  "  Hamadan,"  a  "  Feraghan," 
a  "  Khorassan,"  or  a  "  Shiraz."  To-day  he  might 
have  been  supplied  with  a  "  Tabriz  "  rug,  a  "  Herez," 
a  "Gorovan,"  or  a  "  Sultanabad,"  carpet,  or  a 
"  Saruk."  Why  are  the  names  different?  Which 
names  have  endured,  and  which  have  changed  ?  Ob- 
jects are  obtainable  into  which  we  must  look  for  eye- 
training,  and  by  which  we  must  be  led  to  apply  our 
knowledge  of  things  Persian. 

The  name  "Persia"  immediately  brings  to  our  re- 
membrance thoughts  of  mighty  monarchs  who  before 
the  Christian  era  laid  the  foundation  of  much  that 
made  Persian  art  what  it  is  to-day,  of  famous  cities, — 
Susa,  Ecbatana,  Persepolis,  and  those,  greater  than 
they,  founded  by  other  civilizations;  of  the  noble  sys- 
tems of  religion  based  on  Zoaoastrianism  or  fire-wor- 
ship ;  of  the  poets  Firdusi,  Sadi,  and  Hafiz  ;  of  the 
Mohammedan  conquest  and  supremacy  ;  of  the  mar- 
vels of  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  century  art  and  of 
the  latter-day  attempt  of  the  sovereigns  to  adopt 
European  manners  and  customs.  Back  again  to 
material  objects  our  minds  revert,  hoping  to  see 
evidences  of  all  these  great  world  facts,  forces,  and 
fancies  in  that  which  remains  in  ornament  awaiting 
our  analytical  study. 

With    this    comprehensive  glance  over  the  history 


i82  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

of  the  country,  native  styles  begin  to  formulate  in 
our  minds,  and  to  Shiraz,  "where  the  sweet  singer 
Hafiz  lived,  we  look  for  the  inspiration  -felt  by 
weavers  of  rare  fabrics.  To  Ispahan,  which  royalty 
once  made  sumptuous,  we  look  for  motifs  that  sug- 
gest opulence  ;  and  to  the  sacred  cities  of  the  Moslem 
faith,  where  fairs  are  held  and  rugs  are  bought  and 
sold  at  times  of  pilgrimage,  we  turn  for  revelation  of 
popular  belief.  We  know  that  the  Fire-Worshippers 
have  been  driven  by  the  ruthless  Mohammedans  to 
the  Kirman  district,  and  in  the  mountains  and  through 
the  country  we  know  that  we  shall  find  primitive  ele- 
ments in  the  weavings  of  the  nomads. 

And  so  we  proceed  until  north,  south,  east,  and 
west  have  each  contributed  their  share  to  the  general 
fund  of  fast-accumulating  information  which  has 
come  to  us  in  reply  to  questions  suggested  by  the 
objects  we  handle,  and  at  length  we  feel  competent 
for  our  own  convenience,  to  classify  the  styles  in  Per- 
sian fabrics.  This  we  at  first  do  in'the  most  arbitrary 
fashion,  the  mere  effort  enabling  us  to  seek  for  reli- 
able confirmatory  testimony  which  will  carry  us  on  in 
our  investigations. 

ffll,nkflM  Approaching  both    the  object  and  the 

^  country  with  the  name  Ispahan,  we  locate 

the  beautiful  sixteenth-century  specimen 
which  it  is  our  good  fortune  to  study,  as  a  palace 
carpet  made  when  floral  ornamentation  had  reached  so 
high  a  state  of  perfection  that  a  definite  style  had 
arisen  and  found  favour.  Upon  a  field  of  softest 
carmine  red,  palmate  flower  forms  are  scattered  at 
intervals,  and,  from  one  to  the  other  of  these,  connect- 


PERSIANRUGS  18 


j 


ing  lines  follow  some  device  in  outline  without  the 
faintest  suspicion  of  arabesque  tracery.  Analysis  of 
the  pattern  shows  it  in  detail,  and  a  dignified  repose 
lends  attraction  to  the  fabric,  which  seems  more  like 
a  tapestry  than  a  carpet. 

By  another  and  quite  different  rug  we  are  led  again 
into  the  Ispahan  province.  Here  floral  designs  follow 
one  after  another, — the  tulip,  the  pink,  the  iris,  the 
lily  and  the  rose,  each  drawn  in  naturalistic  fashion, 
and  each  showing  familiarity  with  the  flowers  of  the 
field  and  with  methods  of  weaving  which  combine 
various  and  fragmentary  motifs  into  a  finished  and 
complete  whole. 

Again  a  mythological  design  fills  the  field  of  a  rare 
carpet,  and  the  Ispahan  red  used  as  ground  colour  is 
almost  completely  hidden  by  animal  and  tree  forms, 
and  in  the  corners  angels  and  demons  are  endeavour- 
ing to  establish  conflicting  rights.  Mongolian  influ- 
ence is  clearly  and  easily  detected  in  this  fabric  in 
which  the  central  design  is  surrounded  by  a  purely 
Persian  border  of  alternately  wide  and  narrow  stripes. 
Each  for  himself  may  thus  proceed  in  analysis  of 
pattern,  and  each  will  gain  information  worth  more 
to  him  than  the  opinions  of  the  wise. 

Ispahan  styles  in  Persian  rugs  obtain  at  the  present 
time,  even  though  the  fabrics  themselves  are  made 
elsewhere, —  in  some  other  province  or  town,  or  in  the 
great  factories  where  old  designs  are  reproduced. 
They  belong  to  the  most  noble  company  of  Persian 
fabrics  ;  they  originally  found  their  existence  at  the 
command  of  royalty  ;  and  the  name  of  the  most 
revered  of  monarchs,  Shah  Abbas,  has  been  given  to 


i84  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

one  of  the  most  highly  prized  designs  of  Persia. 
When  a  place  has  produced  a  design  that  has  lived 
long  enough  to  warrant  its  constant  reproduction  by 
the  best  artists  of  a  district,  its  name  is  given  to  the 
style,  and  an  individual,  wherever  he  may  live,  or  a 
commercial  house,  wherever  it  controls  human  ma- 
chines, may  manufacture  rugs  by  the  dozen  or  the 
gross  in  the  well-known  style,  and  as  modern  fabrics 
they  may  come  into  our  possession.  Methods  of 
weaving  alone  can  help  in  determining  the  age  and 
locality  of  the  weaver,  and  long  experience  is  neces- 
sary before  one  becomes  competent  to  do  more  than 
venture  an  humble  opinion  in  regard  to  these  techni- 
cal points.  Styles,  however,  can  be  understood  and 
named. 

._  ,  The  salaams  or  thought  bouquets  of  Per- 

sia,  in  which  the  significance  of  each  blos- 
som is  thought  of  and  suggested,  marks 
the  Kirman  or  second  style  of  Persian  fabrics,  to 
which  age  and  long-continued  reproduction  has  added 
renown  no  less  brilliant  than  the  lustre  of  the  fabrics 
themselves.  Bouquets  and  vases  of  flowers,  single 
roses  and  large  blossoms,  worked  in  strong  primary 
colours,  have  grown  old  so  gracefully  that  an  old  Kir- 
man rug  has  about  it  the  quality  of  a  glorious  old 
painting.  As  in  the  products  of  Ispahan,  the  style 
obtains  no  matter  who  reproduces  it,  and  in  modern 
weaves  that  we  know  have  come  from  commercial 
towns  in  the  far  north  we  learn  to  detect  these  old 
designs.  In  genuine  Kirman  rugs  the  wool  is  of  so 
fine  a  quality  and  so  marvellously  spun  that  even  a 
novice  soon  learns  to  recognize   it  at   a  glance  and  to 


RUG-PLATE  XXV 


SOUMAC  (SHEMAKA)  RUG 


BUG-PLATE  XXV 


SOUMAC  (SHEMAKA)  RUG 

Author's  Description 

<n~'HIS  is  a  most  perfect  illustration  of  an 
-*-  antique  Soumac  rug.  Water  motifs  pre- 
dominate in  the  design,  while  other  elemental 
forces  are  indicated  by  the  presence  of  the 
swastika,  and  star-forms  scattered  over  the 
field. 

The  figures  that  break  the  field  of  the  rug  in 
three  places  are  called  by  experts  "  tank  medal- 
lions.'''' Fountains  and  sprays  of  water  are 
often  skilfully  depicted  in  the  decoration  of 
these  "  tank  medallions";  and  zigzags  innumer- 
able, ivith  a  vast  number  of  ivave-forms,  show 
the  primitive  effort  to  represent  flowing  water. 


-*%>• 


4^.^'v.    :;    :    'N^VJ^- 


KlC-l'LATE   XXV 


PERSIAN    RUGS  185 

distinguish  all  imitations  from  the  genuine  and  origi- 
nal carpets.     Whatever  the  development  of  the  medal- 
lion in    Kirman   rugs   themselves,  in    those   that   are 
made  in  imitation  of  them  it  is   a   prominent   feature, 
and  in  both  pomegranate  and  lotus  outline    it  marks 
the  Mongolian  thought    that   once  so  strongly  influ- 
enced Kirman  styles.     The  ease  with  which   designs 
may  be  reproduced   is  illustrated  in   the  present-day 
manufacture  of  modern  rugs  in  various  places  through- 
out Persia,  in  which  adherence  to   antique   models  is 
made   of    paramount  importance.     Only  in  response 
to  inquiry,  or  as  the   result   of  travel,  can   up-to-date 
knowledge  be  acquired  of  the  facts   that   control  the 
present  immense  output  of  looms  in  which  these  old 
fabrics  are  copied.     In  Tabriz,  in  northwestern  Persia, 
European  firms  control  the  manufacture  of  vast  num- 
bers  of  well-made   rugs    and   carpets  which   are  sold 
to-day  under  the  name  of  the  design  copied,  which  is 
considered    of    more    importance    than    the   place  of 
manufacture.       Great    confusion  of    thought   attends 
this  discovery,  and,  particularly  when   the   name  "Ta- 
briz "  is  given  to  the  modern  fabric,  the  student  feels 
entirely    at    a    loss.     In    this    case,  however,  as    with 
Ispahan  rugs,  when  the  type  gives   name   to   a   style, 
familiarity  with  that  style  will   lead  to  recognition  of 
it  in  various  weaves. 

The  raw  material  used  in  Kirman  rugs  is  excellent 
beyond  the  power  of  words  to  describe.  Shawls  of 
such  fine  texture  that  they  may  be  drawn  through  a 
finger  ring  are  made  of  the  most  marvellously  fine 
wool,  woven  in  patterns  similar  to  those  copied  in 
rugs.     Travellers  who  have  found  interesting    proofs 


i86  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

that  Persian  patterns  have  been  based  on  the  natural 
products  of  the  country,  enumerate  the  great  number 
of  birds,  animals,  and  flowers  that  cause  the  liberal 
Mohammedans  to  rejoice  in  their  freedom  to  copy 
human  and  animal  forms  in  design.  Leopards,  wild 
sheep,  hyenas,  wolves,  wild  cats,  wild  asses,  gazelles, 
grouse,  pigeons,  quail,  ducks,  snipe,  and  numerous 
other  birds  and  animals  roam  in  the  mountains  or  are 
domesticated  in  the  groves,  each  at  one  time  or 
another  lending  inspiration  to  designers,  and  motifs  of 
ornament  to  weavers. 

Held  within  seven  borders,  the  field  of  a  superb 
antique  specimen  of  the  looms  of  Kirman  is  practi- 
cally covered  with  a  scheme  of  ornamentation  that 
reveals  the  working  out  of  profile  and  flat  flower 
forms  to  perfection.  Though  somewhat  formal,  each 
flower  in  one  part  of  the  design  is  repeated  in  another, 
so  that  there  is  absolutely  no  individuality,  but 
merely  a  copy  of  a  set  design.  Still,  so  technically 
perfect  is  the  pattern  that  it  must  be  considered  a 
triumph  from  that  standpoint.  The  eight-petal  lotus 
design  is  worked  up  on  the  four  large  and  four  lesser 
petals  in  the  centre,  from  which  floral  forms  that  ter- 
minate in  fleurs-dc-lys  designs  confine  the  central  field 
within  a  scalloped  outline  which  separates  the  ivory 
colour  of  the  ground  from  the  rich  full  shades  of  red 
and  blue  which  give  life  to  the  border  stripes.  Age 
has  toned  the  colours,  and  time  has  worn  parts  of  the 
surface  almost  to  the  warp,  and  yet  it  remains  soft, 
pliable,  lustrous,  and  beautiful, — a  type  to  perpetuate. 
In  Kirman  and  Ispahan  rugs  are  to  be  found  traces  in 
design  of  the  ancient  Zoroastrianism  which  gave  the 


PERSIAN    RUGS  187 

cypress-tree  and  cone  flame  motifs  to  ornament. 
Altars  on  high  mountains,  and  temples  of  primitive 
construction,  have  ever  held  in  themselves  most  inter- 
esting and  suggestive  themes  ;  and  as,  at  the  present 
time,  one  of  the  few  remaining  colonies  of  Fire-Wor- 
shippers has  been  banished  to  the  Kirman  district,  it 
is  not  remarkable  that  the  emblems  of  their  faith  are 
somewhat  apparent  in  the  work  of  their  hands.  In 
the  mountain  and  desert  region  in  the  south  of  Persia 
the  nomads  and  villagers  weave,  after  tribal  methods, 
rugs  that  are  sold  either  in  the  fairs  held  during  fes- 
tival seasons,  or  in  towns  where  they  easily  find  mar- 
ket. Antique  Kirman  rugs  appeal  to  the  lover  of 
textiles  and  the  student  of  history  as  few  others  do; 
they  seem,  in  fact,  to  be  of  historical  significance 
themselves,  and  they  carry  the  thought  back  into  the 
past  with  every  carefully  delineated  cypress-tree  and 
with  each  expression  of  mongrel  thought. 

In  the  light  of  our  kindled  imagination  we  see  the 
priests  who  guarded  the  sacred  fire  marching  in  sol- 
emn procession,  each  one  carrying  a  bundle  of  twigs 
with  which  he  divines  future  events  and  foretells  the 
fates  of  men  ;  each  reverencing  the  symbol  of  the 
founder  of  their  religion,  the  cypress-tree  of  immor- 
tality ;  each  testifying  to  the  belief  in  eternal  vigi- 
lance and  uninterrupted  supplication.  Reverent 
worshippers  of  light,  as  the  emblem  of  all  that  is 
good,  the  Magi  have  figured  in  time  and  story, 
whether  favoured  by  protection  as  in  ages  past,  or 
persecuted,  as  they  are  at  the  present  time.  Modern 
art  and  song  have  conceded  to  the  Fire-Worshippers 
the    right  to  claim  as  their    own    many    ideas   which 


188  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

have  been  developed  along  the  line  of  their  flight ; 
for,  when  banished  by  conquering  powers,  the  Parsees 
have  scattered  and  settled  where  they  have  found 
tolerance,  peace,  and  quiet.  Conservative  and  faithful 
as  craftsman,  they  have  both  followed  the  ideas  of 
others  and  carried  out  in  detail  their  own  inherited 
traditions,  and  ever  and  again  in  individual  conceits 
we  detect  evidence  of  the  belief  in  light  and  fire  of 
the  devotee  who  chants, — 

"  Holy  flames  that  gleam  around 
Every  altar's  hallowed  ground  ; 

Holy  flames  whose  frequent  food 

Is  the  consecrated  wood  ; 
Holy  flames  that  waft  to  heaven 
Sweet  oblations  daily  given 

Mortal  guilt  to  purge  away, — 

Hear,  oh  hear  me,  when  I  pray !  " 

It  was  the  worship  of  the  sun  itself  that  gave  birth 
to  the  earliest  religion  of  the  Fire-Worshippers,  and 
upon  the  simple  and  direct  relation  of  man  to  the 
great  God-sphere  grew  various  other  and  lesser  beliefs 
of  which  we  find  traces  in  the  thought  of  the  later 
centuries.  Other  systems  have  adopted  or  rejected 
certain  of  the  main  features  of  the  original  cult,  and 
still  the  faith  of  ancient  Iran  underlies  all  the  reli- 
gions of  Persia.  Greek,  Sassanian,  Mohammedan,  and 
Mongolian  adaptations  of  the  original  thought  con- 
cerning the  conflicting  forces  in  nature  have  each 
added  some  fragment  of  ornament  to  confound  the 
student,  so  that  patterns  of  to-day  are  conglomerate 
and   represent   different   stages   and   eras,  any   one  of 


BUG-PLATE  XXVI 


SECTION  OF  SOU  MAC  RUG 


BUG-PLATE  XXVI 


SECTION  OF  SOU  MAC  BUG 

Author's  Description 

T  N  this  section  of  a  Soumac  rug  may  be  seen 
-*  the  flat  weaving  which  differentiates  this 
style  of  carpet  from  any  other.  The  long  ends 
hang  loosely  from  the  back  of  the  rug  and  give 
it  iveight,  while  a  tapestry  effect  causes  the  stir- 
face  of  the  textile  to  appear  quite  different 
from  anything  else  woven  in  the  Orient. 


RUG-PLATE  XXVI 


PERSIAN    RUGS  189 

which  might  be  studied  to  profit  and  advantage  when 
particularly  suggested  by  designs  in  rugs. 

The  legendary  history  of  Persia  has  given  number- 
less motifs  of  ornament  that  have  proved  more  tenaci- 
ous than  many  which  are  founded  upon  more  authentic 
history.  Standards,  weapons,  crowns,  trophies, 
costumes,  and  chariots,  used  by  the  mythical  heroes 
of  early  centuries,  have  each  at  some  time  or  other 
figured  in  the  annals  of  the  country  and  have  taken 
definite  form  in  its  art. 

A  striking  example  is  the  leathern  standard  often 
referred  to  as  the  "  blacksmith's  apron,"  which  led  the 
Persian  hosts  to  victory  until  the  Mohammedan  con- 
quest. The  story  goes  that  an  early  prince  being 
tempted  of  the  devil,  allowed  the  evil  one  to  kiss 
him.  At  this  the  evil  spirit  suggested  to  the  prince 
that  he  should  kill  his  father  and  take  the  throne. 
This  the  prince  proceeded  to  do,  whereupon  a  black 
serpent  grew  from  each  of  his  shoulders.  After  cut- 
ting them  off,  they  grew  again  and  again,  until  the 
devil,  being  consulted,  advised  that  the  serpents  be 
fed  with  the  brains  of  men.  This  led  to  the  slaying 
of  many  men,  and  to  great  revolt  among  King  Zohak's 
subjects.  Finally  the  king  was  overcome  with  re- 
morse, and,  being  anxious  to  ease  his  conscience,  he 
requested  his  people  to  sign  a  document  which  stated 
that  he  had  always  been  a  just  king.  A  blacksmith 
named  Kaweh,  who  had  been  obliged  to  give  up  a 
dozen  sons  that  their  brains  might  supply  food  for  the 
serpents,  protested  against  signing  the  paper,  and, 
carrying  his  leather  apron  aloft  on  a  spear,  proceeded 
to  cry  down  the  iniquitous  monarch.     He  was  followed 


igo  THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

by  a  large  number,  who,  marching  to  the  market-place, 
called  upon  the  son  of  a  favourite  ruler  to  lend  them 
his  aid  in  the  revolt.  Feridoon  yielded  to  the  request 
of  Kaweh,  and  adopted  as  his  standard  the  leathern 
apron,  which  he  ordered  to  be  studded  with  the  most 
beautiful  gems  and  elaborately  embroidered,  and 
until  the  conquest  it  served  as  the  Persian  standard. 
The  soldier  who  then  captured  it  sold  it  at  an  immense 
price,  though  not  at  its  full  value. 

Another  emblem  connected  with  this  legend  is  that 
of  an  iron  mace  with  a  head  shaped  like  a  cow's,  for 
the  hero  Feridoon  had  been  hidden  away  during  his 
childhood  in  charge  of  a  gardener  who  had  a  cow  of 
great  beauty.  The  horns  of  this  legendary  animal 
are  sometimes  used  as  a  decorative  feature  in  art,  and 
as  talismans  are  considered  most  effective. 
1h*>fnt  One    of  the    Persian    styles    met    with    in 

analytical  study  differs  from  the  floral  orna- 
mentation  of  Kirman  and  Ispahan  rugs,  and 
the  student  finds  it  impossible  to  classify  the  designs 
in  the  fabrics  without  recognizing  the  fact  forced  upon 
him  by  the  presence  of  motifs  too  absolute  in  their 
suggestiveness  to  be  ignored.  The  lancet-shaped 
leaves  depicted  one  on  one  side  and  one  on  the  other 
of  a  central  flower  form  show  the  Persian  floral  inter- 
pretation of  the  old  Mongolian  idea  of  the  fish  in 
design,  and  of  the  balancing  animal  forms  which,  as 
surrounding  an  object  of  interest,  seem  to  guard  and 
protect  it.  This  Herati  design  has  been  traced  back 
to  old  tapestries  and  embroideries  where  the  animal 
form  is  distinct,  and  yet  in  rugs  themselves  there  is 
no    record    of   correct    interpretation    of    the    design. 


PERSIAN    RUGS  191 

The  long  lancet  leaves,  shaded  one  side  light  and  one 
dark,  appear  in  the  earliest  weavings  of  the  district, 
which  is  so  far  to  the  east  in  Persia  that  it  is  not 
strange  that  it  has  been  influenced  from  without. 
When  once  the  Herati  pattern  becomes  known,  the 
weave  of  the  rugs  in  which  it  appears  is  found  to 
differ,  and  one  is  obliged  to  discriminate  between 
the  style  itself  and  the  places  which  have  adopted  the 
style  in  rug  design.  Thus  in  the  Feraghan  region  the 
Herati  style  has  been  developed,  and  is  constantly 
used  in  the  making  of  rugs  in  which  Sehna  knots  are 
carefully  tied  upon  cotton  warp.  The  field  in  these 
rugs  is  covered  with  the  Herati  design  surrounded  by 
a  border  known  also  as  Herati,  in  which  alternate 
rosette  and  palmate  forms  appear  upon  a  green  ground. 
The  operations  of  commercial  firms  in  the  Feraghan 
district  is  throwing  upon  the  market  great  quantities 
of  both  well-made  and  carelessly  woven  rugs,  each 
bearing  close  resemblance  to  traditional  designs,  or 
else  showing  the  addition  of  unrelated  motifs  which 
soon  reveal  themselves  to  the  student  who  has  com- 
mitted himself  to  close  study  of  types  and  their 
origin.  According  to  workmanship  and  materials  the 
original  Herati  rugs  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
fabrics  of  Feraghan,  and  one  should  study  therein 
the  diaper  fret  which  terminates  in  profile  lotus-flower 
forms  which  are  exactly  like  the  rendering  of  the 
blossom  found  on  Chinese  porcelains  in  which  the 
lotus  pod  shows  in  the  midst  of  the  petals.  In  some 
genuine  Herati  rugs  the  main  border  shows  the  butter- 
fly design  in  outline  form,  and  this  is  rarely  if  ever 
copied    in     Feraghan     carpets.     A    distinctive    floral 


i92  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

arrangement  known  as  a  Feraghan  feature  shows  a  set 

spray  or  flower   design   at    regular  intervals   upon  the 

field  of  a  rug  which  has  other  ornamentation  as  well 

of  flower,  leaf,  and  diaper.      Upon  these  stiff  upright 

stalks  are  set  six  blossoms  of  sometimes  six  but  more 

often  five  petals  each,  and   these  are   woven  in  light 

shades  which  appear  in  strong  contrast  to  the  ground 

colour  of  the  rug  itself.     Herati  styles  are  sometimes 

spoken  of  as  Khorassan  the  name  of  the  province  in 

which  Herati  is  situated,  and  that  name  gives  us  the 

fourth  of  the  well-known  Persian  styles. 

ir>u -»*♦<■»««««  I"  fabrics  which   abound    in    realistic 

IKDOrabball       _  -     , 

nower    designs  we  find  the  Khorassan 

^  style   at   its  very  best.      In    old  rugs  of 

this  kind  it  seems  as  though  the  weaver  had  gone 
out  into  the  garden  and  plucked  as  many  flowers  as 
he  chose,  laid  them  down  upon  the  grass  accord- 
ing to  his  fancy,  and  then  drawn  flower,  leaf,  and  stem, 
with  strict  fidelity  to  nature.  They  differ  from  floral 
designs  that  represent  flower-strewn  fields,  as  they 
always  suggest  arrangement,  though  naturalistically 
drawn.  So,  also,  they  differ  from  Kirman  designs, 
which  show  flowers  in  vases,  and  wide-open  blossoms 
conventionally  placed.  Exactly  what  the  difference 
is  it  is  hard  to  define,  unless  it  be  that  the  Kirman 
designs  seem  always  to  embody  some  thought  or 
reference  to  the  significance  of  flowers,  while  those  of 
Khorassan  appear  chiefly  symmetrical,  with  a  realism 
forced  upon  the  worker  after  arbitrarily  grouping  his 
chosen  blossoms.  When  it  comes  to  conventionaliza- 
tion the  Khorassan  weavers  show  plainly  East  Indian 
influence,  and    in    many    of    the    so-called     palm-leaf 


BUG-PLATE  XXVII 


CABISTAN  RUG 


RUG-PLATE  XXVII 


CABISTAN  RUG 


Author's  Description 


c  J  HE  "effulgent  star"  design  is  shoivn  to 
•*•  perfection  in  this  fine  specimen  of  Cauca- 
sian weaving.  Upon  a  black  background,  red, 
yellow,  blue,  and  white  elongated  star-forms  are 
so  distribided  as  to  produce  a  diagonal  effect. 
The  border  is  a  most  perfect  illustration  of  the 
attempt  to  use  flower  forms  in  decoration  by  a 
people  accustomed  to  geometric  patterns.  The 
pink,  made  of  a  combination  of  triangles  with 
stiff  stem-forms,  shows  a  Caucasian  effort  to 
reproduce  a  Persian  floral  border.  In  some 
fine  specimens  the  weavers  show  much  better 
success  than  is  displayed  in  this  example. 

The  broad  border,  consisting  of  red,  blue, 
white,  and  black  stripes  alternately  disposed,  is 
in  direct  imitation  of  an  old  Shiraz  pattern 
which  in  turn  was  based  upon  a  Central  Asian 
water  design,  in  which  the  spots  that  are  woven 
in  contrasting  colours  upon  the  stirpes  take  the 
form  of  fishes. 

It  has  not  been  possible  to  procure  photo- 
graphs of  rugs  which  show  the  evolution  of  this 
border  design;  but  they  exist,  and  the  patterns 
upon  them  shoiv  clearly  and  conclusively  the 
basing  of  tribal  upon  archaic  and  symbolic 
design. 


PERS1ANRUGS  193 

designs  a  rigidity  of  purpose  marks  the  distribution  of 
accepted  motifs,  while  the  colours  show  adherence  to 
old  styles  and  primary  shades.  The  weaving  of  Khor- 
assan  fabrics  is  peculiar  :  four  or  more  rows  of  knots  are 
sometimes  tied  with  no  weft  thread  to  separate  them, 
and  then  two  or  three  strands  of  the  woof  are  thrown 
in,  one  after  the  other,  followed  by  four  more  rows  of 
knots.  This  gives  a  peculiar  look  to  the  backs  of  the 
woven  fabrics  ;  and  the  pile,  when  the  rug  is  bent  in 
the  hand,  falls  naturally  into  divisions,  showing  the 
rows  of  knots  in  groups  separated  by  the  section  of 
woof  threads.  This  method  of  weaving,  though 
adopted  in  other  parts  of  Persia,  is  generally  alluded 
to  as  a  Khorassan  feature. 

£.   .  In  Sehna  rugs  we  find  the  fifth  style,  and 

one  which  has  given   name  to  the   Persian 
"  knot,  which    differs   so   materially  from   the 

Turkish  knot  that  it  is  easily  distinguished  from  it. 
All  the  finest  Iran  rugs  are  tied  with  the  Sehna  knot, 
and  many  of  them  are  of  fabulous  worth  and  of  great 
beauty  of  design.  An  almost  superabundance  of 
ornamentation  crowds  into  the  field  of  Sehna  rugs  a 
vast  number  of  knots  in  varying  shades  of  the  finest 
of  wools,  and  hundreds  of  knots  to  the  square  inch 
cause  these  carpets  to  have  so  fine  and  velvet-like  a 
surface  that  they  are  easily  recognized  and  never  for- 
gotten. Floral  features  are  so  rendered  that  each 
tiny  flower  point  seems  to  scintillate  with  its  dewdrop 
in  gem-like  fashion.  The  patterns  in  Sehna  rugs 
seem  to  be  their  least  important  feature.  It  is  never 
necessary  to  appeal  to  design  for  a  verdict,  as  Sehna 
rugs  reveal  their  origin  in  the  weave  itself.     The  warp 


i94  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

may  be  of  cotton  or  silk,  and  the  knots,  as  described, 
of  the  finest  wool,  but  the  finished  fabric  does  not 
force  upon  us  any  need  of  analysis.  The  Sehna  style, 
once  known,  is  always  recognized.  There  is  no  reck- 
less abandon  in  designs  :  all  is  stiff  and  formal,  though 
minute  and  exquisite  ;  but  as  marvels  of  technical  pre- 
cision Sehna  rugs  stand  unequalled,  and  as  such  are 
highly  prized. 

IRurfcistan       In  stronscontl'ast  to  tne  nne  rugs  of 

IRt        *  Sehna  are  the  rugs   that    are    made    in 

Kurdistan,  which  give  the  sixth  style  to 
Persian    fabrics.     Lawless,   free,  and   unrestrained  are 
the    designs    to    which    the   mountaineers  of    western 
Persia   have  adhered   through   the  years.     Bound    by 
no  conventions,  yielding  allegiance  under  protest,  and 
ever  wandering  upon  hilltops  or  in  high  valleys  under 
the    broad    expanse    of    heaven,    these    mountaineers 
have  given  to  the  art  of  the  weaver  a  note   all   their 
own,  and  it  is  as  a   low,  full,  strong,  bass   to   the  high 
soprano  and  tenor   notes  of  more  civilized   communi- 
ties.    Deep,  rich  colours,  a  carefully  clipped  lustrous 
pile,    and   tribal   motifs  of  interest,  combine   to   make 
Kurdistan     fabrics    most    important.       From    Persian 
Kurdistan,  near-by  cities  and  towns  are  easily  reached, 
and  during   the   past  century  prevailing  styles  of  ad- 
joining  places    have    more    or    less    influenced    the 
weavers  who  carry  their  rugs  to  market  towns  for  sale. 
Often  in  the  field  of  a  Kurdistan  rug  will  be  found  a 
rectilinear  lattice,  each  division  of  which  will  be  filled 
with  large  circular-shaped  rosette  or  flower  forms,  the 
colours  of  which  vary,— pinkish,  red,  blue,  and  yellow 
flowers  being  arranged  alternately  upon  a  body  colour 


PERSIAN     RUGS  i95 

of  metallic  blue;  or  the  rug  surface  maybe  broken 
up  into  three  divisions,  in  each  of  which  apparently 
meaningless  geometric  forms  are  grouped.  The  bor- 
ders are  few  that  surround  the  field  in  this  style  of 
rug,  and  in  the  broad  stripe  large  round  flowers,  like 
those  that  fill  the  field,  are  set  one  after  another  all 
around  the  rug. 

ur  j.  A  most  distinctive  peculiarity  in  rug- 

weaving  which  marks  the  seventh  style 
J  in  Persian   rugs  is  produced  by  the  use 

of  natural  coloured  camel's  hair  for  solid  surface 
effects.  The  shading  of  the  camels-hair  pile  varies, 
but  in  the  main  there  is  no  effort  made  to  do  away 
with  this  feature,  and  very  often  dark  flecks  and  lines 
of  brown  show  in  vivid  contrast  to  lighter  patches  of 
the  natural-coloured  hair.  Hamadan  rugs  present  in 
general  a  subdued  appearance,  yet  it  is  invariably  the 
case  that  strong  colours  have  been  introduced  in 
the  small  patterns  that  lie  as  trellis  or  grille  upon  the 
solid  coloured  camels'-hair  background.  Old  Hama- 
dan rugs  were  sometimes  of  wool  warp,  but  now  the 
knots  are  invariably  tied  upon  cotton  warp.  There  is 
something  about  the  slippery  nature  of  the  camels' 
hair  which  causes  the  knobs  to  slip  upon  the  cotton 
warp  threads  unless  well  beaten  down  and  held  tightly 
in  place  by  the  weft.  A  closer  affinity  obtained  when 
wool  and  hair  was  spun  for  the  warp  of  old  Hamadan 
rugs,  and  antiques  show  a  strong  resemblance  to  fur 
or  animal  skin  hard  to  duplicate  in  any  other  style  of 
weaving.  At  the  present  time  camels'-hair  rugs  are 
very  popular,  and  are  turned  out  at  factories  where 
patterns  are  furnished  by  European  firms,  so  that  all 


196  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

spontaneity  seems  to  have  departed  from  the  once 
poetically  rendered  motifs  of  design.  In  one  well- 
known  Hamadan  design,  elongated  diamond  forms 
extend  from  a  large  one  in  the  centre  in  either  direc- 
tion to  the  borders  of  the  rug,  and  these  diamond 
forms  are  filled  with  small  floral  designs  solidly 
packed  together.  White  wool  is  sometimes  used  for 
background  in  these  diamond  medallions,  in  fact  the 
predominance  of  yellowish  white  wool  is  one  of  the 
distinguishing  marks  of  interest  in  Hamadan  rugs  ; 
sometimes  only  the  two  colours  appear, — ivory  white 
and  the  brown-toned  camels'  hair. 
£..  ,  In  the  rugs  of  Shiraz  we  seem  to  find  the 

point  of  extremest  interest  in  the  history  of 
Oriental  weaving,  and  with  them  we  mark 
the  eighth  style  in  Persian  rugs.  With  Shiraz  rugs 
about  us  we  may  revert  to  our  rug-chart  and  assert ' 
with  conviction  that  "  the  Oriental  rug  is  a  thing  of 
sentiment  and  should  be  studied  as  such."  Warp, 
woof,  and  pile  of  heavy  wool  make  beautiful,  antique 
Shiraz  rugs.  Colours  like  wine  seen  through  glass, 
like  ripening  fruit,  or  deep-toned  autumn  foliage,  have 
about  them,  in  addition,  a  metallic  lustre  and  irides- 
cence that  differentiates  them  from  all  others  known 
to  the  lover  of  things  Oriental.  The  plumage  of 
birds  and  the  radiance  of  gems,  the  softness  of  moss 
and  the  warmth  of  fur,  are  suggested  by  the  Shiraz 
rugs.  From  Ispahan  and  Kirman  the  weavers  of 
Shiraz  have  drawn  inspiration  as  well  as  from  home 
sources,  and  in  the  borders  that  surround  the  typical 
Shiraz  field  these  borrowed  designs  are  found.  Wide- 
open  roses  are  set  in  Kirman  style  upon  a  background 


RUG-PLATE  XXVIII 


SHIRAZ  RUG 


It  UG-PLA  TE   XX  VIII 


SHIRAZ  RUG 

Size:  14  X  11 

Loaned  by  Mr.  James  W.  Ellsworth 


"■jfearGftG 


"        4 
JffcJ 


'«*f 


0 


.>_* 


'V 


/ 


RUG-PLATE  XXV11I 


PERS1ANRUGS  197 

of  changing  colours,  or  animal  forms  are  converted 
into  patterns  which  do  not  at  first  reveal  their  motif. 
The  tree,  in  Shiraz  weavings,  is  treated  differently 
from  the  Ispahan  rendering  of  it,  and  shows  a  blend- 
ing with  the  floral  background  against  which  it  rests. 
The  edges  of  all  plant  or  tree  forms  in  Shiraz  rugs  are 
softened,  and  are  quite  unlike  the  highly  convention- 
alized, more  architecturally  rendered  designs  in  weav- 
ings farther  north.  Beyond  the  pile  of  Shiraz  rugs 
the  warp  and  woof  extend  in  a  webbing  which  is 
woven  or  embroidered  in  pattern,  and  which  is  a  dis- 
tinctive Shiraz  peculiarity.  Shiraz  rugs  have  always 
been  used  as  pilgrimage  rugs  and  as  votive  offerings. 
The  odd  conceits  of  individual  weavers  are  evidenced 
in  Shiraz  rugs,  and  at  the  same  time,  in  examining 
them,  one  can  readily  conceive  of  whole  families 
working  at  patterns  so  well  known  that  even  little 
children  could  take  their  turn  at  the  loom.  Some- 
times the  knots  are  so  tied  that  the  pile  falls  from  the 
centre  toward  the  ends  of  the  rug,  instead  of  from  one 
end  to  the  other,  and  with  this  change  of  method  the 
entire  pattern  shows  in  a  different  light,  and  a  subtle 
charm  emanates  from  the  fabric. 

The  eight  principal  styles  in  antique  Persian  rugs 
are  supplemented  and  varied  by  a  vast  number  of 
other  and  lesser  varieties,  each  one  of  which  becomes 
of  interest  when  eyesight  and  insight  are  sufficiently 
trained  to  recognize  them.  The  interesting  question 
arises,  as  to  the  name  one  should  give  to  a  rug  which 
in  design  follows  a  well-known  style,  but  in  weave 
reveals  a  place  of  manufacture  other  than  that  where 
the  design   had  its  birth.      A  Shiraz  rug, — what  is  it  ? 


198  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

Is  it  a  rug  made  in  Shiraz  style  in  Cabistan  ?  Or  is  it 
a  rug  made  in  Cabistan  style  in  Shiraz?  Invariably 
the  amateur  considers  design,  while  the  professional 
handler  of  rugs  devotes  himself  to  technique.  Weaves 
and  methods  of  manufacture,  a  knowledge  of  which  is 
harder  than  all  else  for  the  student  to  obtain,  gives 
names  to  the  rugs  that  are  bought  and  sold  among  us. 
Oriental  i'ugs  as  repositories  of  symbolic  design  are, 
however,  to  be  viewed  from  other  than  the  standpoint 
of  trade  classification,  and  just  as  we  detect  any  lack 
of  fidelity  to  historic  designs  in  Louis  XVI  silks, 
satins,  and  cottons,  because  of  our  intimate  knowledge 
of  the  period  without  necessarily  attempting  to  say  in 
what  factory  the  goods  were  made,  just  so  we  may 
venture  an  opinion  in  regard  to  Oriental  styles  when 
the  study  of  the  past  and  its  influences  have  made  us 
expert  in  the  recognition  of  accurate  rendering  of 
traditional  ornament.  This  careful  and  analytical 
study  will  put  one  in  possession  eventually  of  knowl- 
edge which  at  the  outset  seems  most  remote. 
/-  Embraced   under  the  general  name  of 

_  Lrorevan       are    grouped    several    vane- 

ties  of  rugs  which  are  well  known  to 
modern  rug-buyers.  Puzzled  indeed  was  the  Occi- 
dental student  when  first  the  romantic  story  of  the 
shaded  ground  in  Gorevan  carpets  reached  his  ears. 
He  was  told  with  grave  assurance  that  once  there  was 
a  celebrated  weaver  who  tried  to  reproduce  the  sky  in 
the  solid  colour  field  of  his  rugs,  and  that  so  absolute 
was  his  success  that  even  drifting  clouds  were  won- 
derfully portrayed.  The  weaver  was  said  to  be  a 
native  of   some   far  northeastern   part  of   Persia,  and 


PERSIANRUGS  199 

the  fabrics,  few  in  number,  woven  by  the  dreamy 
mystic,  were  known  as  Herez  rugs.  The  outside 
borders  of  these  Herez  rugs  were  generally  of  self- 
coloured  camels'  hair  or  goats'  hair,  while  in  the 
middle  and  inner  borders  were  floral  rosettes  con- 
nected by  angular  vine  formations.  Belief  in  this 
tradition  enhanced  the  value  of  what  was  at  first  sup- 
posed to  be  an  unique  possession,  until,  under  the 
name  of  "  Gorevan,"  rugs  with  shaded  blue  back- 
grounds began  to  appear  in  great  numbers,  and  no 
explanation  was  given  for  the  change  of  name. 
Difficult  indeed  was  it  to  arrive  at  any  conclusion  in 
regard  to  these  textiles  through  analysis  of  them. 
The  materials  differed  ;  in  some  rugs  they  were 
coarse,  in  others  fine.  The  pile  wool  was  rarely  lus- 
trous, but  the  knots  (Ghiordez)  were  firmly  tied,  and 
the  fabric  was  strong  and  well  made.  In  very  truth 
the  shaded  background  did  suggest  the  blue  of  the 
sky,  and  in  some  instances  stars  and  constellations 
appeared  in  the  patterns  which  filled  the  central 
medallion  and  corner  spaces.  Through  dealers  the 
information  was  finally  obtained  that  "  Gorevan  "  was 
in  reality  a  trade  name  supplied  to  establish  the 
superior  merit  of  rugs,  made  commercially  in  the 
Herez  district,  which  adhered  with  slight  variation  to 
the  traditional  Herez  design.  These  Gorevan  rugs  at 
once  became  popular,  and  whether  or  not  some  old 
individual  weaver  was  ever  responsible  for  the  inten- 
tional cloud  effect  in  his  solid  backgrounds,  or 
whether  he  found  it  impossible  to  use  his  dyes  suc- 
cessfully, and  so  produced  a  streaky  effect,  we  never 
shall  know.     There  is  all  the   difference    in    the  world 


200  THE     ORIENTAL     RUG    BOOK 

in  the  point  of  view  ;  "  drifting  clouds  "  are  far  more 
poetic  than  accidental  streaks ;  and  in  a  fond  and 
foolish  way  we  believe  in  the  sky-carpets  while  we 
confess  that  in  them  we  find  only  obscure  designs 
and  nothing  that  helps  us  very  materially  in  the  study 
of  ornament. 

~        .       w  In  Saraband  rugs  the  design  which  has 

^  given  itself  to   the   most  interesting   and 

perfect  development  is  that  which  either 
in  composite  or  naturalistic  representation  is  known 
as  the  "palm-leaf"  in  ornament.  Under  whatever 
name  this  figure  appears, — "  almond,"  "  feather," 
"  pear,"  "  crown-jewel,"  "  river-loop,"  "  cone,"  or 
"  bouquet," — it  will  ever  and  always  be  called  by 
some  the  "palm-leaf"  and  new  explanations  of  its 
origin  are  continually  being  made.  Without  doubt, 
as  has  already  been  stated,  the  design  had  a  different 
meaning  in  one  place  from  that  it  had  in  another,  and 
more  than  one  explanation  of  it  is  therefore  neces- 
sary. A  very  profound  student  of  Oriental  symbolism 
explains  the  Saraband  pattern  as  one  of  Mohamme- 
dan origin,  representing  the  flowers  of  Allah  arranged 
in  what  is  known  as  Mohammed's  bouquet,  and  in 
antique  rugs  the  motif  is  quite  different  from  that 
found  in  modern  carpets  and  proves  beyond  a  doubt 
that  there  is  still  something  to  be  discovered  and  that 
we  speak  now  only  the  "  little  language  "  and  stand 
at  the  "  beginning  of  days."  Comparative  study  of 
the  borders  of  Shiraz  and  Saraband  rugs  is  both 
necessary  and  profitable,  as  they  sometimes  suggest 
each  other.  The  many  narrow  borders  of  the  Sara- 
bands hold   both   native   and  borrowed  designs,  while 


RUG-PLATE  XXIX 


HERAT I  RUG 


RUG-PLATE  XXIX 


HER  AT  I  RUG 
Loaned  by  Mr.  James  W.  Ellsworth 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

"     /I  FINELY  woven  eighteenth-century  speci- 
-*■**     men  of  the  Khorassan  looms. " 

S.  S.  Costikyan. 


RUG- PLATE  XXIX 


PERSIAN    RUGS  201 

in  Shiraz  rugs  there  are  often  on  each  side  of  the 
broad  border  narrower  ones  composed  of  alternate 
stripes  diagonally  arranged  ;  and  the  webbing  beyond 
the  pile,  either  plain  or  embroidered,  is  a  Shiraz,  not 
a  Saraband  feature. 

«-  ,       j  A  glance  at  the  map  of  Persia  will  show 

.  the   location   of   towns,  provinces,  and   dis- 

tricts in  which  objects  handled  here  in  the 
Occident  have  interested  us  : 


Sarakhs 

Teheran 

Tabriz 

Meshed 

Sultanabad 

Irak 

Kashan 

Kermanshah 

Kara  Dagh 

Azerbiajan 

Ardebil 

Sirab 

Two  of  these  names  strike  us  with  startling  famil- 
iarity,— Sultanabad  and  Tabriz, — and  we  realize  how 
many  modern  carpets  come  to  our  observation  bear- 
ing either  one  of  these  names.  For  statistics  regard- 
ing them  we  are  indebted  to  consuls  and  merchants, 
who  lead  us  to  a  realization  that  for  standards  and 
types  we  must  look  to  antiques  ;  for  while  the  Orien- 
tal rug  in  the  long  ago  was  the  child  of  the  imagina- 
tion and  fancy,  it  is  now  a  prose  fact  commercially 
controlled.  Tabriz  lies  to  the  east  of  Lake  Urumiah, 
and  in  its  factories  are  manufactured  rugs  of  techni- 
cally high  grade  in  which  old  patterns  are  reproduced 
with  such  fidelity  that  great  credit  is  due  to  the 
management.  The  designs  in  Tabriz  rugs  differ 
sufficiently  from  those  they  copy  to  be  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  them  by  the  connoisseur,  but  they 
are  the  most  difficult  fabrics  for  the  uninitiated  to 
handle.     The    student    of     historic     ornament     looks 


L'BRAHY 

■  o< 

CALIFORNIA 


"■^asKr-s-- 


202  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

upon  them  very  much  as  the  print  collector  regards 
his  etching  of  a  famous  painting.  Old  designs  are 
wrought,  with  frankly  confessed  new  materials,  which 
are  reproductions — and  beautiful  ones — of  treasures 
that  now  exist  only  in  fragments.  The  most  marvel- 
lous of  these,  a  close  and  accurate  copy  of  one  of  the 
most  famous  throne  carpets  in  existence,  has  within  a 
few  years  found  its  way  to  New  York,  and  in  each 
exquisite  flower-form  may  be  traced  absolute  fidelity 
to  the  original,  while  the  materials  have  been  as  care- 
fully prepared  as  modern  skill  and  perfected  methods 
would  permit.  We  are  told  that  these  gorgeous  car- 
pets are  woven  by  boys  who  at  the  order  of  an  over- 
seer tie  the  coloured  knots  one  by  one  upon  the  warp 
threads.  One  is  thus  reminded  of  the  service  of  the 
boy  in  the  Bible  story,  who,  at  the  bidding  of  Jona- 
than, went  out  to  bring  back  his  master's  arrows 
according  to  a  preconceived  plan  which  David,  the 
beloved  friend,  could  understand.  He,  hidden  away 
in  the  cave,  learned  by  the  orders  given  that  he  must 
flee,  "but  the  lad  knew  not  anything."*  So  these 
Oriental  boys  to-day  are  dumb  instruments  of  service 
to  us  in  doing  as  they  are  bid,  while  the  intelligence 
of  their  masters,  who  are  seeking,  though  for  commer- 
cial purposes,  to  perpetuate  time-honoured  designs, 
should  be  respected,  and  their  efforts  encouraged ; 
for  they  are  enabling  many  who  cannot  possess  orig- 
inals to  know  what  they  are  like,  through  familiarity 
with  faithful  copies  of  them.  Known  as  such,  their 
works   have    a    right   to    existence,    but    they  should 


*  I  Sam.  xx,  35. 


PERSIAN    RUGS  203 

never  be  bought  or  sold  as  antiques.  In  Kirman 
designs  reproduced  in  Tabriz  rugs  we  have  excellent 
opportunities  to  study  the  outline  forms  given  to 
various  medallions  by  weavers  in  the  past.  With  a 
desire  to  economize  labour,  the  ground  in  Tabriz  rugs 
is  often  of  solid  colour,  and  upon  it  the  medallions 
very  plainly  confess  their  general  outlines  and  detail 
ornamentation  ;  and  when  analysis  of  originals  has 
made  one  familiar  with  them,  then,  and  only  then, 
may  one  feel  confidence  in  himself  in  the  examination 
of  reproductions. 
_    .  _    .  Just  as  Tabriz  furnishes  a  manufac- 

Sultanabafc       J.  ,  , 

tunng  centre  for  rugs   that    bear  close 
■*»*yS  resemblance  to  the  textiles  of  southern 

Persia,  and  a  market  for  those  collected  in  near-by 
districts,  so  in  Sultanabad  are  collected  and  manu- 
factured a  great  quantity  of  rugs  bearing  central 
Persia  designs.  Saraband,  Saruk,  Hamadan,  and 
Feraghan  designs  are  made  to  order,  and  are  varied 
according  to  fancy.  This  varying  historic  ornament 
by  the  individual  designer,  is  alas,  the  great  danger 
that  threatens  the  student  of  symbolic  design  at  the 
present  time,  there  is  no  escape  for  him  but  to  drink 
deep  at  the  fountain  of  truth,  and  then  as  an  individ- 
ual do  what  he  can  to  establish  facts  and  separate 
them  from  modern  variations  of  them.  This  leads  us 
to  consider  briefly  the  difference  between  rugs  as  floor- 
coverings  and  as  art  objects,  between  modern  shams 
which  imitate  something  they  do  not  reproduce,  and 
rugs  as  vehicles  of  self-expression  or  repositories  of 
traditional  belief.  It  is  apparent  to  the  most  casual 
observer  that  as  objects   of  beauty  both   modern  and 


2o4  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

antique  rugs  have  every  right  to  force  themselves  upon 
our  notice,  and  it  is  our  privilege  to  lose  ourselves  in 
contemplation  of  the  marvellous  handling  of  materials 
that  so  controls  our  aesthetic  sense  that  we  care  not 
when  or  by  whom  the  fabrics  were  made,  revelling,  as 
we  do,  in  their  beauty.  If,  however,  through  the 
study  of  pattern  in  rugs,  any  one  finds  it  stimulating 
and  profitable  to  reach  back,  through  the  years  to  the 
beginnings  of  human  thought  and  endeavour,  he, 
whoever  he  may  be,  should  make  a  protest  against 
loose  handling  by  designers  of  historic  ornament. 
Let  the  artist  or  craftsman,  with  all  the  originality  he 
possesses,  make  patterns  that  shall  be  his.  Let  mod- 
ern art  have  its  way  and  express  itself  as  it  will,  but 
do  not  encourage  any  one  to  handle  traditional  pat- 
terns with  impunity.  Faithful  reproduction  is  not 
imitation.  One  may  serve  his  day  by  so  carefully 
studying  the  art  of  the  past  in  schools  of  design  in 
Europe  and  America  that  he  may  furnish  Oriental 
weavers  with  their  own  native  patterns,  through 
which  may  be  handed  down  for  future  interpretation 
symbols  that  in  his  hands  have  suffered  no  deteriora- 
tion. There  is  room  for  all  the  beauty  that  new 
thought  and  new  art  can  provide;  but  let  Egyptian 
lotus  blossoms  stand  rigidly  and  stiff,  while  Indian 
lotus  forms  rest  placidly.  Let  the  vine  find  its  way  in 
and  out  among  Persian  flowers,  while  at  the  same  time 
it  awkwardly  forces  the  geometrically  formed  Turkish 
blossoms  into  constrained  relations.  Let  the  mysteri- 
ous cloud  circles  of  Chinese  ornament  lift  the  immor- 
tals to  their  heaven  of  heavens,  while  the  wings  of  the 
cherubim  meet   over  the  ark  of  the   Lord.     But  oh  ! 


MUG-PLATE  XXX 


SHIR  AZ  RUG 


RUG-PLATE  XXX 


SHIR  AZ  RUG 

Size:  7.1X4.8 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

/I  VERY  antique  and  perfect  gem  for  colour, 
_  "*     quality,  and  silky  effect.'1'' 

Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat. 


*/Jv   •-*s- 


"ti»  wt^.. 


J^    W*- 


^*-  ..««4~  •<Jtw      ^1 


*&* 


■  w»   i'>10   ->K-  ids*  -jflx  v. ' '     C ' 


..»•&■•*  v'^  -^-.yS*  ■-'iv 


i<t~>         '\*      i'l; 


mtm 


RUG-PLATE  XXX 


PERSIAN    RUGS  205 

refrain,  ye  who  for  livelihood  or  fame  are  handling 
ornament,  from  growing  Chinese  flowers  on  Egyptian 
stalks  and  from  surrounding  Assyrian  deities  with 
Buddhist  halos  ! 


CHAPTER  XX 

TURCOMAN   RUGS 

THE  Turcoman  region  of  rug-producing  country 
lies  to  the  north  of  Persia  and  Afghanistan,  and  west 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and,  for  our  convenience  in  hand- 
ling the  subject,  may  include  some  of  the  Mongolian 
and  all  of  the  Eastern  Turkestan  district.  The  princi- 
pal places  for  shipping  the  rugs  made  by  wandering 
tribes  and  dwellers  in  remote  towns  have  in  the  past 
given  their  names  to  objects  which  have  been  gathered 
up  by  caravan  and  sold  to  dealers  in  Oriental  markets, 
so  that  erroneous  nomenclature  has  been  obtained, 
and  until  recently  little  has  been  done  to  rectify  mis- 
takes. Even  now  it  is  but  very  little  that  any  English- 
speaking  student  can  do  to  glean  information  that 
will  more  than  carry  him  on  to  the  recognition  of  some 
new  error  which  his  earnest  efforts  may  help  to  eradi- 
cate. 

The  little  that  is  known  of  the  Turcoman  country 
and  Turcoman  products  is  well  known,  and  so  firmly 
established  in  the  minds  of  those  who  have  been  long 
interested  in  the  study  of  rugs  that  it  is  unwise  to 
make  definite  statements  of  recent  changes  that  have 
somewhat  altered  the  ideas  of  advanced  thinkers. 
When  Mr.  S.  G.  W.  Benjamin  was  our  first  Minister  to 
Persia  (1883)  he  wrote  that  in  Asia  the  rugs  always 
called  in  America  "  Bokhara  "  would  not  be  recognized 


TURCOMAN    RUGS  207 

by  that  name  in  the  place  where  they  were  made,  but 
as  "  Turcoman  rugs,"  made  in  the  region  "  which  was 
the  cradle  of  the  Turkish 'race,  and  is  now  occupied 
by  the  fierce  Turcomans,  who  have  been  at  one  time 
and  another  alternately  subject  to  Persia  or  to  the 
Mongols,  and  are  now  tributary  to  Russia."  With 
this  information  the  then  scantily  equipped  student 
and  rug-lover  proceeded  to  call  all  Turcoman  rugs  by 
that  name,  until  returned  travellers  brought  home  the 
new  name  "  Khiva  "  with  their  possessions,  and  we 
learned  that  the  rugs  were  bought  in  the  caravan  town 
of  "  Khiva,"  in  the  great  desert,  and,  although  to  our 
untrained  eyes  they  were  of  various  sorts  they  were 
grouped  under  the  one  name  "  Khiva." 

A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  the  average  home 
boasted  of  few  Oriental  rugs  at  the  best,  and  such, 
with  the  names  arid  history  given  by  the  Occidental 
dealer  at  the  time  of  purchase,  stand  to-day  to  con- 
front the  expert,  and  to  serve  as  visible  and  accepted 
proof  to  the  contrary,  when  he  propounds  advanced 
and  correct  ideas  which  differ  absolutely  from  cher- 
ished traditions.  In  point  of  fact  there  are  wide  differ- 
ences between  the  fabrics  of  middle  Asia,  and  in  them 
the  Mongolian  elements  are  so  evident  that  they  must 
be  understood  before  the  ornament  which  has  evolved 
from  them  can  be  properly  described. 

However  high  the  mountains  that  separate  Turkes- 
tan from  China  and  Tibet,  and  however  difficult  for 
the  foot  of  man  to  penetrate  the  mountain  passes  or 
to  force  his  way  under  protest,  the  thought  life  of  the 
extreme  East,  with  its  accompanying  symbolism,  has 
drifted  westward  through  the  centuries,  and   to  it  we 


2o8  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

are  indebted  for  more  than  at  first  appears.  Certain 
systems  of  adopting  signs  as  tribal  marks,  and  of  dis- 
playing such  in  prominent  places  about  the  tent  home, 
upon  the  garments  of  servants,  and  as  brand  marks 
on  cattle,  have  obtained  through  centuries,  and  the 
custom  is  demonstrated  in  the  Turcoman  district  with 
earmarks  of  Mongolian  ancestry  which  differentiate  it 
from  methods  of  central  and  western  tribes  of  like 
wild  nature. 

In  our  rug-chart  we  have  yielded  the  "octagon  "  to 
the  Turcoman  division,  and  through  it  and  by  it  we 
may  find  our  way  into  the  thought-life  of  the  Mongo- 
lian races.  Historians  but  meagerly  concede  the 
rights  of  the  Chinese  to  any  sort  of  precedence, 
because  they  do  not  figure  in  the  march  of  nations 
toward  the  same  sort  of  goal  that  has  developed  the 
ambition  and  progress  of  the  Caucasian  race.  Art  is 
at  last,  however,  beginning  to  acknowledge  its  debt  to 
the  land  where  the  silk  loom  was  first  reared,  and  the 
potter's  wheel  invented,  and  we  are  but  in  the  begin- 
ning of  our  knowledge  of  things  Chinese. 

In  the  octagon  the  eight  divisions  of  location  were 
without  doubt  originally  indicated,  and  in  ancient 
Chinese  thought  these  divisions  were  supposed  to  be 
presided  over  by  animal  deities,  just  as  in  all  early  cal- 
culations the  points  of  the  zodiac  are  represented  as 
under  the  control  of  presiding  forces.  The  powers  of 
light  and  the  powers  of  darkness  formed  the  two 
extremes,  and  as  such  are  represented  by  light  and 
shade.  When  a  semi-barbaric  art  endeavoured  to 
express  this  pictorially,  the  octagon,  with  its  light  and 
dark  boundaries,  was  the  result,  and  in  early  drawings 


PA-K.WA    SHOWING    THE    EIGHT     DIAGRAMS    OF    FUH-HI 
Tae-Kiek,   or    Yang  and    Yin,    in   Cento 


TURCOMAN    RUGS 


209 


FUH-HI,  THE  DISCOVERER  OF 
THE    "  EIGHT  DIAGRAMS." 


the  animals  controlling  the  elements  were  crowded 
into  circular  and  octagonal  forms,  and  represented 
with  great  fidelity  to  religious  belief. 

To  prove  that  this 
eight-sided  form  traces 
back  to  the  "  Pa-Kvva," 
and  the  "  Yang  and  Yin  " 
of  Chinese  symbolism  is 
now  much  easier  than 
formerly,  as  both  fabrics 
and  porcelains  testify  to 
the  gradual  evolution 
from  pure  symbols  to 
conventional  forms  of 
this  design.  The  five  directions  of  the  Chinese— north, 
south,  east,  west,  and  middle  —  form  the  structural 
lines  upon  which  the  famous  octagon  is  built.  The 
"  Dragon,"  encircling  the  east 
from  north  to  south,  and  the 
"  Fung-Hwang,"  pro- 
the  west  from  south 
to  north,  enclose  the  sacred 
directions.  In  the  deteriora- 
tion of  the  pattern  at  the 
hands  of  weavers  who  did  not 
comprehend  it,  the  animal  and 

,   .        *  ,  .  THE  "  TAE-KIEH"  OR 

bud  forms  became  mere  patch-  "yang  and  yin." 

es  of  light  and  shade,  and  in  Turcoman  weavings 
we  find  the  Mongolian  thought  crystallized  into  a 
set    pattern    in    so-called    "  Bokhara  "  rugs. 

The  "  Pa-Kwa,"  of  Fuh-hi,  the  mythical  founder  of 


great 
tecting 


2io  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

Chinese  philosophy,  has  formed  the  base  of  a  vast 
number  of  designs,  and  the  "  Tae-Kieh  "  has  found  its 
way  into  our  own  land  to  serve  decorative  purposes. 
Volumes  have  been  written  by  both  Chinese  and 
Occidental  authorities  regarding  the  "  Pa-Kwa,"  but 
for  our  purposes  it  is  necessary  only  to  state  that  its 
combination  of  broken  and  unbroken  lines  is  made 
with  evident  intent.  The  unbroken  lines  represent 
the  celestial  and  male  elements  in  nature,  while  the 
broken  lines  refer  to  things  terrestrial  and  the  female 
element.  By  three  unbroken  lines  ^^^^  reference 
is  made  to  father  and  heaven,  and  by  the  broken  lines 
j^=  SS  we  find  mother  and  earth  designated,  and  so 
on  through  the  heavenly  pantheon  until  the  elements, 
fire,  water,  dew,  etc.,  are  all  disposed  of  and  distri- 
buted as  possessions  of  sons  and  daughters  of  the 
Divine  Parents  who  rule  the  universe.  The  central 
disc  in  the  pattern  is  divided  by  two  semicircles. 
This  object  is  called  the  "  Tae-Kieh,"  and,  when 
arranged  in  the  centre  with  the  eight  diagrams  around 
it,  is  used  as  a  charm  and  as  decoration  for  all  sorts 
of  articles. 

Among  the  possessions  of  many  collectors  there 
exist  to-day  objects  decorated  with  these  lines  and 
signs,  which  until  lately  have  been  described,  even  in 
museum  catalogues,  as  "  philosophical  emblems." 
When  a  sufficient  amount  of  interest  was  awakened, 
students  were  addressed  on  the  subject,  and  they 
have  given  information  which  has  added  perceptibly 
to  the  pleasure  of  those  who  are  making  collections 
illustrative  of  Chinese  philosophy.  The  outline  shape 
of  the  "  Tae-Kieh  "  is  frequently  described  in  design, 


TURCOMAN    RUGS 


211 


the  dividing  line  through 
the  centre  following  the 
circles  of  the  "  Yang  and 
Yin."  The  story  goes 
that  old  Fuh-hi  over 
three  thousand  years  ago, 
discovered  the  marks 
known  as  the  "  ei^ht  dia- 
grams  "  upon  the  back  of 
a  tortoise,  and  in  some  ornamentation  we  find 
the  tortoise  used  as  a  decorative  feature.  Fabu- 
lous beings  are  sometimes  represented  as  holding 
the  "  Pa-Kwa,"  such  being  used  as  charms.  It  is 
generally  believed  that  the  diagrams  furnish  a 
clue  to  the  secrets  of  nature,  and  speculations 
based  upon  their  various  combinations  are  indulged 
in  by  believers  in  occult  influences  and  geomancy. 

When  properly  arranged,  the  three  unbroken  lines 
referring  to  the  "  father  "  are  placed  in  the  eastern 
position,  and  the  three  broken  lines  are  placed  in  the 
west,  so  that,  counting  the  unbroken  lines  as  three, 
and  the  broken  lines  opposite 
as  six,  the  number  nine  is  the 
result,  and  this  added  to  the 
central  unit  (the  "  Tae-Kieh  ") 
makes  the  sacred  number  ten. 
So  on  all  around  the  circle, 
counting  the  lines  opposite  each 
other,  we  always  have  nine,  so 
that  there  are  four  sets  of  nines, 
each  in  turn  made  ten  by 
adding  the  central  unit. 


THE  TOMOYK  EXTENSIVELY 

USED  IN   MONGOLIAN 

ORNAMENT. 


It  is  astonishing  to  find  that 


212 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


ORNAMENTAL  USE  OF 
SYMBOLIC  FORM. 


so  many  patterns  may  be  traced  to  the  "  Pa-Kvva," 
and  besides  ceremonial  objects,  ornamental  and  ordi- 
nary textiles  are  to  be  found,  decorated  wholly  or  in 

part  with  motifs  suggested  by  the 
"  eight  diagrams  "  and  the  "  Tae- 
Kieh." 

Among  the  most  distinctive  and 
famous  of  Mongolian  patterns  may 
be  included  the  "sceptre  "  or  "  joo-e 
wand,"  the  "  cloud,"  the  "  Y  pat- 
tern," the  "  pearl,"  the  "  wave,"  the 
"trellis,"  the  "  lozenge,"  the  "scroll," 
the  "  bat,"  the  "  butterfly,"  and  many  other  forms 
which  are  frequently  found  in  Turcoman  as  well  as  in 
Chinese  and  Tibetan  textiles.  In  genuine  Chinese 
rugs  we  find  archaic  and  emblematic  design,  but  in 
this  connection  we  must  consider  only  such  as  avail 
us  in  tracing  the  ancestry  of  Turcoman  patterns.  In 
Turcoman  textiles  we  find  more  to  encourage  us  still 
to  believe  in  the  Oriental  rug  as  a  thing  of  tribal 
significance  than  in  almost  any  other  fabrics  now  made 
west  of  Tibet.  The  name  Turcoman,  once  so  little 
understood,  is  now  used  almost  universally  to  desig- 
nate the  fabrics  which  are  made  by  peoples  who  have 
lived  for  centuries  in  undisputed  possession  of  desert 
tracts  and  mountain  retreats  in  central  Asia. 

Across  the  plains  of  Asia  there  have  come  only 
faint  echoes  of  the  glory  and  renown  of  the  great  con- 
queror Tamerlane  (Timoor  Lenk) 1  who  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  by  force  of  his  phenomenal  will  power, 


i  Fl.  1336-1405. 


MUG-PLATE  XXXI 


SHIRAZ  RUG 


RUG-PLATE  XXXI 


SHIRAZ  RUG 
Size:  6.10  X  5.4 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

'  ll  HIS Shiraz  rug  is  'known  as  a  Mecca  rug, 
-*■  because  it  comes  from  that  Holy  City, 
ivhither  it  ivas  originally  taken  by  a  Persian 
pilgrim.  In  ancient  times,  even  more  than  at 
present,  a  pilgrim  had  a  particular  feeling 
about  taking  with  him  on  his  journey  the  finest 
rug  in  his  possession.  It  would  be  very  difficult 
to  imagine  a  rug  more  silky  than  this  specimen. 
It  looks  like  an  animal  skin.'''' 

Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat. 


RUG-PLATE  XXXI 


TURCOMAN    RUGS 


213 


controlled  a  sufficient  number  of  followers  to  aid  him 
in  his  spirit  of  conquest,  and  to  carry  and  plant  the 
Tartar  banner  all  over  the  central  and  western  Orient, 
so  that  art  and  industry,  architecture  and  design,  were 
each  and  all  different  from  that  period.  In  none  of 
the  fabrics  of  the  district  between  the  Caspian  Sea 
and  Tibet,  which  now  belongs  in   part   to   Russia,  do 


r$$h 


The  Petal. 


The  Trellis. 


The  Y-woik. 


The  Fish-roe. 


The  Scale. 


The  Network. 
I 
CHINESE    HISTORIC     ORNAMENT. 


The  Sceptre  Head. 


we  fail  to  find  motifs  of  design  that  do  not  in  some 
way  or  other  show  the  influence  of  Mongolian  thought. 
Octagon  and  circular  forms  can  best  be  studied  in 
Khiva  and  Bokhara  embroideries,  for  in  them  the 
freedom  of  the  needle  enables  the  designer  to  work 
the  most  intricate  details  that  are  sometimes  omitted 
when  the  patterns  are  woven  in  rugs.  There  are,  for 
example,  in  Turcoman  design,  about  eight  different 
ways  of  representing  the  sun  and  its  apparent  motion. 
These  eight  forms  of  the  circle  are  found  most  accu- 
rately rendered  with  small  and  carefully  laid  stitches 
upon  cotton  cloth,  and  in  some  old  rugs  these  are 
reproduced  and  lend  great  value  to  the  fabrics. 


2i4  THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

IRnkhflrji  Fully  twenty  years  ago,  when  the  general 

public  had  first  become   interested  in  the 
■  dull-coloured  rugs  affected    by  the  highly 

artistic,  who  had  revolted  from  the  gaily  tinted  fabrics 
of  the  Turkish  looms,  rugs  were  sold  and  purchased  as 
Bokharas  which  to-day  we  find  should  be  called  by 
other  names.  Mr.  Benjamin,  in  1885,  wrote  warningly 
of  these  so-called  Bokharas,  and  explained  that  their 
deterioration  in  colour  was  due  to  the  loose  principles 
of  the  Russian  government  as  compared  with  the 
Persian  control  of  dyes  and  wearing.     He  thus  writes  : 

"  One  of  the  finest  rugs  made  in  the  East  is  called  by  the  Amer- 
ican dealers  the  '  Khiva,'  but  more  often  the  '  Bokhara,'  rug, 
probably  because  it  first  reached  the  West  through  merchants 
trading  with  Bokhara  and  Khiva,  great  marts  of  central  Asia. 
By  Orientals,  however,  the  Bokhara  rugs  are  better  known  as 
Turcoman  rugs.  They  are  made  in  the  region  which  was  the 
cradle  of  the  Turkish  race,  and  is  now  occupied  by  the  fierce  Tur- 
comans. The  colours  used  in  these  rugs  are  few,  chiefly  various 
shades  of  maroon,  red,  and  blue,  interwoven  with  a  creamy  white. 
The  pattern  is  also  quite  uniform,  consisting  almost  invariably  of 
a  many-angled  conventional  figure  often  repeated  in  the  centre, 
surrounded  by  a  border  somewhat  similar,  but  in  smaller  designs. 
But  the  variety  of  combinations  that  are  evolved  out  of  this  pattern 
is  infinite.  When  one  sees  one  of  these  Turcoman  rugs  it  appears 
as  if  he  had  seen  them  all,  and  yet  no  two  are  alike,  either  in 
design  or  quality.  The  durability  of  these  Turcoman  rugs  is  mar- 
vellous. They  were  not  made  originally  for  the  market,  but  for 
the  use  of  the  tribes  themselves,  and  are  intended  for  portieres 
of  tents  and  to  throw  over  temporary  divans.  One  may  some- 
times see  rugs  of  this  class,  fifty  to  seventy  years  old,  that  have 
been  in  constant  use  by  some  pastoral  clan,  and  are  still  not  only 
in  excellent  condition,  but  have  acquired  a  velvety  softness  and  a 
certain  indescribable  peach-bloom  or  sheen.  To  my  taste  there 
are  no  rugs  of  the  East  that  give  more  permanent  pleasure  to  the 


MONGOLIAN    ORNAMENT    FOUND    IN    CHINESE    AND 
TURCOMAN    RUGS 


TURCOMAN    RUGS  215 

artistic  eye  than  these  of  the  nomads  of  Turkestan.  It  is  therefore 
greatly  to  be  regretted  that  the  aniline  dyes  which  those  tribes 
have  received  from  Russian  traders  in  recent  years  have  come 
into  considerable  use  in  the  making  of  their  rugs." 

Under  whatever  term  these  rugs  figure  in  the  Orient, 
there  are  three  names  that  are  used  in  America  to  dis- 
tinguish from  all  other  fabrics  those  of  the  Turcoman 
district,  these  are  "Bokhara,"  "Khiva,"  and  "Af- 
ghan." Analytical  study  of  objects  has  familiarized 
the  student  with  the  main  features  of  each  of  these 
styles,  which,  though  resembling  each  other,  do  not 
share  all  points  in  common.  The  dark-red  pile  in  all 
of  them  looked  to  us  at  first  to  be  very  much  the 
same,  the  point  of  divergence  being  what,  in  handling 
the  fabrics,  appeared  to  be  a  warp  in  some  of  the  dark- 
red  rugs  of  entirely  different  nature  from  that  found 
in  others.  A  white-wool  fringe  soon  caused  us 
to  group  together  another  variety  of  rugs  which 
seemed  unlike  many  bearing  the  same  designs.  And 
so,  very,  very  haltingly,  progress  was  made.  In  the 
auction-rooms,  where  so  much  information  is  freely 
dispensed  which  is  not  sufficiently  sifted  to  be  taken 
without  a  grain  of  allowance,  vast  quantities  of  red- 
pile  rugs  with  long  white-wool  fringes  were  classed  as 
Bokharas  until  the  garish  nature  of  the  colour  sug- 
gested the  "  Russian  trader,"  and  great  was  the  fall  of 
the  modern  Bokhara  in  the  estimation  of  the  enlight- 
ened student.  Antique  Bokharas  were  finally  estab- 
lished as  types,  and  wherever  they  are  copied,  whether 
inside  the  walls  of  the  ancient  city  or  in  Russian  Bok- 
hara eight  miles  away  from  it,  on  the  plains  or  in  the 
mountains,  whether  we  decide  to  call  the  fabrics  "Tur- 


2i6  THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

coman  "  or  "Tekke,"  they  are  at  least  at  the  present 
time  known  and  recognized  as  "  Bokhara."  Bokhara 
pattern  consists  of  a  series  of  squares  or  oblong  rec- 
tilinear divisions  which  extend  over  the  entire  field  of 
the  rug,  around  the  angles  of  which  are  described 
octagonal  forms  in  which  the  Mongolian  distribution 
of  light  and  dark  effects  is  clearly  expressed.  Star- 
forms  more  or  less  elaborate  are  found  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  crossed  lines  that  underlie  the  more 
apparent  octagonal  pattern  ;  while  between  the  octa- 
gons, and  in  the  centre  of  the  squares  or  oblongs, 
diamond,  star,  and  small  octagonal  figures  carry  most 
significant  motifs  of  ornament  which  are  always  dis- 
tinctly tribal.  In  Bokhara  rugs  these  smaller  figures 
differ  most  strikingly,  and  are  well  worth  study  while 
still  they  adhere  to  traditional  pattern. 

Mr.  I.  W.  Bookwalter,  in  describing  the  weaving 
done  by  the  Turcoman  girls  on  the  plains  of  Tartary, 
writes  :  * 

"  The  Turcoman  scatters  his  tents  at  wide  intervals  throughout 
the  country  he  occupies.  These  tents  are  round,  from  fifteen  to 
thirty  feet  in  diameter,  and  in  exterior  aspect  are  anything  but  at- 
tractive, being  often  weather-worn  and  dingy.  In  passing  into  it 
no  change  can  be  more  startling.  It  is  like  the  rapid  shifting  of  a 
scene  in  the  theatre,  so  sudden  is  the  transformation.  It  is  difficult 
to  conceive  anything  more  exquisite  than  the  interior  one  often 
sees  in  the  tent  of  a  well-to-do  Turcoman.  The  floor  is  covered 
with  carpets  and  rugs  of  beautiful  designs  and  exquisite  colouring. 
The  walls  are  encircled  with  lovely  hangings  and  tapestries  and 
the  door  shielded  by  portieres  of  richest  design,  all  of  which  is  the 
handiwork  of  this  singular  race.     The  women  carry  into  advanc- 


*"  Siberia  and  Central  Asia.' 


TURCOMAN    RUGS  217 

ing  years  the  remnants  of  the  grace  and  beauty  that  marked  the 
vigourous  period  of  their  lives.  Their  costumes  are  of  graceful 
design,  richly  embroidered,  and  of  enchanting  colouring  the  invari- 
able product  of  their  own  hands. 

"  Being  anxious  to  see  how  the  beautiful  carpets  and  rugs  were 
produced  which  connoisseurs  so  highly  esteem  as  the  richest  pro- 
duct of  Eastern  textile  art,  I  visited  quite  a  number  of  homes  for 
that  purpose.  The  smaller  rugs  are  woven  in  the  tents  occupied 
by  the  family,  but  for  the  larger  ones  a  temporary  canopy  is  erected 
near  by.  The  ground  is  covered  by  some  old  carpet  or  other  pro- 
tection for  the  future  fabric.  Two  poles,  of  a  length  suited  to  the 
width  of  the  carpet  to  be  made,  are  placed  at  a  distance  apart  to 
correspond  with  its  length.  From  one  pole  to  the  other  the  warp 
is  extended  and  spread  to  suit  the  fineness  of  the  carpet.  The 
warp  is  made  taut  by  twisting  one  of  the  poles,  which  are  securely 
staked  to  the  ground,  to  prevent  them  being  drawn  together  and 
to  preserve  the  necessary  tightness.  As  the  only  remaining  mech- 
anism is  a  heavy  metallic  comb,  used  from  time  to  time  to  drive 
the  pile  firmly  together,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  rude  simplicity  of 
their  appliances  is  only  equalled  by  the  marvellous  results  produced 
by  it.  The  work  is  done  almost  wholly  by  women,  and  most 
generally  by  young  girls.  The  most  astounding  thing  in  the  whole 
process  is  that  no  pattern  whatever  is  used,  the  women  relying 
wholly  upon  their  memory  and  the  eye  for  the  arrangement  of 
colours  and  development  of  the  pattern  and  designs. 

"  It  is  at  once  apparent  to  any  one  at  all  versed  in  this  art  that 
the  modern  product  is  vastly  inferior  to  that  of  the  olden  time. 
They  themselves  are  fully  aware  of  this  ;  for,  when  displaying  a 
sample,  if  you  ask  them  if  it  is  an  antique,  they  ruefully  shake 
their  heads,  as  if  regretting  to  confess  that  they  no  longer  create 
those  miracles  of  texture  and  colour  of  their  ancestors.  It  is 
well-nigh  impossible  to  obtain  superior  examples  of  the  old  work 
here,  so  thoroughly  have  the  Persian,  Armenian,  and  other  mer- 
chants searched  the  country. 

"  In  Turcomania,  cutting  in  various  directions  through  the  tree- 
less and  almost  trackless  waste,  are  camel  trails  on  which,  under  a 
cloudless  sky  and  over  burning  sands,  can  be  seen  long  caravans  of 


2>8  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG     BOOK 

camels  plodding  their  drowsy,  solemn  way  to  distant  lands  beyond, 
with  which  they  hold  a  rude  though  not  unimportant  commerce. 

The  Turcomanians  have  a  singular  though  truly  chivalrous  cus- 
tom of  naming  their  women,  the  name  being  usually  that  of  a 
flower,  its  colour,  or  some  feature  of  it.  The  widow  of  the  last 
reigning  Khan  of  Turcomania  is  called  by  the  Tartars  '  Kuldja 
Khan,'  which  literally  means  '  the  flower  of  the  Khan'.  " 

In  this  long  quotation  a  glimpse  of  life  in  a  remote 
quarter  of  the  globe  is  given,  for  which  those  who 
cannot  travel  are  greatly  indebted.  The  fact  that 
specimens  of  ancient  Turcoman  weaves  are  quite  as 
apt  to  be  found  in  the  Occident  as  in  the  Orient  is 
made  very  apparent  by  Mr.  Bookwalter's  statements, 
and  the  obligation  imposed  upon  the  student  becomes 
greater  with  this  realization.  The  output  of  the  dis- 
trict may  soon,  as  with  that  of  other  places,  come 
under  strictly  commercial  control,  and  not  only  will 
the  market  be  flooded  with  crude  modern  specimens, 
but  deviations  from  tribal  designs  will  doubtless  also 
result. 

One  of  the  choicest  methods  of  making  the  weav- 
ings  of  Turcomania  still  more  beautiful  is  to  throw  in 
the  high  lights  in  silk  of  a  rose  pink,  which  shines  out 
with  star-like  radiance  from  the  more  sombre  shades 
used  in  Bokhara  rugs.  In  antique  specimens  this 
peculiarity  lends  a  rare  charm  to  choice  possessions, 
and  is  greatly  admired  and  sought  by  lovers  of  the 
beautiful. 

The  name  "  Kchatchli-Bokhara  "  is  given  to  a  variety 
of  Turcoman  rugs  in  which  the  field  is  crossed  both 
horizontally  and  perpendicularly  by  bands  which 
carry  designs  similar  to  those  ordinarily  found  in  bor- 


BUG-PLATE  XXXII 


SHIRAZ  RUG 


It  UG-FLA  TE  XXXII 


SH1RAZRUG 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

"  c7  HIS  rug  is  of  very  fine  texture,  is  very  thin, 

-*-      and  much  like  a  shawl.     As  such  it  was 

used  as  a  winter-hanging  or  drapery  in  some 

palace  of  the  beautiful  and  important  city  of 

Shiraz. 

"Such  rugs  as  this  made  Shiraz  famous. 
They  were  made  for  private  use  with  the  great- 
est of  patience  and  care,  only  the  finest  quali- 
ties of  selected  life-wool  and  the  very  best  of 
dyes — such  as  were  used  for  making  valuable 
rugs  in  the  olden  time— being  used  in  their 
manufacture, 

"Shiraz  or  Mecca  rugs  as  well  finished  and  as 
rich  in  material  and  colours  as  this  cannot 
easily  be  excelled  in  effects.  They  are  silky, 
durable,  and  beautifid.  This  specimen,  though 
old,  is  well  preserved  and  is  a  very  precious  an- 
tique rug.'''' 

Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat. 


RUG-PLATE  XXXI I 


TURCOMAN    RUGS  2.9 

der  stripes,  dividing  the  field  into  four  sections,  which 
bear  candelabra  and  plant  forms.  In  these  Kchatchli- 
Bokharas  the  designs  found  in  embroideries  to  which 
allusion  has  already  been  made  are  often  faithfully 
copied,  and  one  intent  upon  tracing  the  migration  of 
sun-motifs  in  symbolic  ornament  may  well  secure  Tur- 
coman illustrations  of  primitive  thought. 

Turcoman  prayer-rugs  abound,  as  the  Mohammedan 
religion  finds  full  expression  in  the  old  city  of  Bok- 
hara, where  there  are  three  hundred  mosques,  and 
thirty  colleges  where  the  faithful  are  educated.  The 
prayer-rug  design  differs  from  those  used  by  the 
Mohammedans  in  western  Asia,  as  the  niche  is  not  so 
prominent  a  feature,  and  the  whole  make-up  of  the 
design  is  not  as  largely  dependent  upon  it  as  in  rugs 
of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Caucasus  district. 

-.ui. Turcoman  red  is  at  its  heaviest   and   deep- 

IRbiva  .  .  .     .  .../ 

est  in  the  rugs  known    m  America  as    Khiva 

J  and  Afghan  rugs.     Larger   figures    than   are 

outlined  in  the  field  in  Bokhara  rugs  hold  in  them 
designs  of  quite  a  different  nature  from  those  that 
give  individuality  to  those  well-known  fabrics.  The 
octagon  reigns  supreme  in  both  but  rarely  in  the  so- 
called  Khiva  design  is  the  slightest  suggestion  of 
animal  form  in  the  light  and  dark  patches  that  appear 
in  their  respective  places  at  the  upper  left-hand 
and  lower  right-hand  corners  of  the  octagons.  A 
reddish  orange  colour  used  for  the  light  shades  in 
Afghan  rugs  renders  them  most  objectionable  to 
many  who  otherwise  would  more  often  purchase  them, 
but  in  the  main  the  entire  pile  strongly  maintains  an 
all-over  red  effect  whatever  the  detail   of  colour  may 


22o  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

be.  Afghan  rugs  are  made  of  goats'  hair  and  the 
fringe  reveals  the  beautiful  quality  of  the  carefully 
prepared  material,  which  even  in  heavy  carpets  is  fine 
and  silky.  The  lustre  which  some  of  the  antique 
Afghans  possess  lends  a  charm  which  is  incomparable. 
The  borders,  which  are  so  distinctive  and  important 
in  Persian  rugs,  are  less  noticeable  in  those  of  Khiva  ; 
but  they  are  of  great  significance,  because,  as  in  all 
Turcoman  weaves,  they  are  of  tribal  import.  The 
introduction  of  blue  and  green  greatly  enhances  the 
beauty  of  the  colour  schemes  in  Afghan  and  Khiva 
rugs,  for,  though  the  prevailing  hue  is  always  red, 
when  diagnosing  the  pattern  it  is  found  that  there  is 
almost  a  kaleidoscopic  effect  about  the  details  which 
lends  an  indescribable  charm  to  the  whole. 

We  rarely  find  an  Afghan  prayer-rug,  though,  when 
occasionally  we  do,  it  proves  entrancing  because  of 
the  colour  scheme,  which  excludes  every  colour  but 
black  from  the  tree  pattern  traced  in  bold  outline  on 
a  field  of  solid  ruby  red.  Tall  and  straight,  without 
vestige  of  leaf  or  blossom,  the  tree  and  its  many 
branches  are  unlike  any  other  that  appears  in  woven 
fabrics,  and  one  might  readily  believe  that  the  poplar 
of  the  oasis,  as  probably  it  was,  gave  inspiration  to 
the  designer. 

A  feature  that  distinguishes  Turcoman  rugs  from 
all  others  is  the  wide  webbing  which  extends  beyond 
the  pile,  and  through  it  lines  of  another  colour  find 
their  way  from  side  to  side. 

Glossy,  lustrous,  rich  in    tone,  and 
KalUCMStan      with  heavy  pile>  Baluchistan  rugs  are 

"*U(JS  never  confounded  with  other  fabrics. 


TURCOMAN    RUGS  221 

When  first  they  came  to  America  they  were  called 
"  constellation  rugs,"  for  in  very  many  of  the  antiques, 
upon  dull  bluish  red,  were  easily  traced  white  stars 
that  followed  well-known  constellations  in  pattern  by 
tying,  here  and  there,  pure  white  wool  knots  on  the 
dark  surface  of  the  field.  The  seven  stars  of  Ursa- 
Major  were  among  those  most  frequently  represented. 
At  the  present  time,  even  in  modern  fabrics,  occa- 
sional white  knots  are  tied,  but  it  is  never  possible  to 
detect  in  them  any  definite  intention  or  significance. 
Erroneously,  but  very  naturally,  Baluchistan  rugs 
have  been  called  "  blue  Bokharas,"  for,  though  a  pre- 
dominence  of  blue  distinguishes  them  from  other  Tur- 
coman fabrics,  the  general  colour  red  prevails,  which 
has  given  style  to  the  rugs  of  the  entire  district  east 
and  north  of  eastern  Persia.  Under  the  name  "  blue 
Bokhara  "  these  rugs  have  been  marketed  in  towns  far 
north  of  their  place  of  manufacture,  and  we  have  yet 
to  discover  whether  we  owe  the  name  to  some  enter- 
prising agent  or  thoughtless  Occidental.  However 
much  at  fault  the  individual  may  have  been  in  giving 
the  name  to  Baluchistan  rugs,  he  succeeded  in  so 
impressing  upon  the  imagination  an  idea  of  what 
these  heavy  blue-red  fabrics  were  that  many  who 
despair  of  ever  knowing  anything  about  Persian  or 
Turkish  rugs  will  select  Baluchistans  from  among  a 
host  of  other  rugs  and  call  them  "  blue  Bokharas." 
«,t  ^  Rugs  distinctly  Turcoman   in  colour,  and 

J0omu&        .    f     .      r  y     .      ,        .    ..     ' 

„_  yet  showing  Caucasian  elements  that  none 

■Rugs      ;    .,  ,.     t    ,       ,  .  ..       , 

could  dispute,  have  become  known  through 
trade  classifications  as  products  of  the  Yomud  tribes 
who   live  to  the  east  of   the   Caspian  Sea,  and  whose 


222  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

designs  show  a  mixture  of  Turcoman  and  Caucasian 
motifs.  These  fabrics  exist  in  large  numbers  in 
homes  where  they  are  called  "yellow"  or  "brown 
Bokharas  "  by  those  who,  recognizing  their  kin  to  the 
rugs  made  in  central  Asia,  have  not  yet  been  dis- 
turbed by  the  strong  Caucasian  elements  in  the  bor- 
der stripes.  The  plum-red  of  Yomud  rugs  is  one  of 
their  charms,  and  a  blush  that  seems  at  times  to  par- 
take of  the  nature  of  a  shadow  gives  them  a  rare 
quality  which  is  very  beautiful.  Designs  vary  so 
much  in  these  rugs  that  it  is  misleading  to  fasten 
upon  any  one  feature  as  indicative  of  a  special  style, 
though  it  is  safe  to  say  that  elongated  diamond  forms 
more  often  appear  than  the  octagons  which  are  more 
truly  the  property  of  the  Tekke  Turcoman  weavers. 
Pile,  warp,  and  woof  of  Yomud  rugs  are  of  fine  hair  or 
wool,  and  they  invite  consideration  and  admiration. 

With  an  ever-increasing  demand  for  reliable  infor- 
mation, it  is  most  satisfactory  to  observe  that  buyers 
in  the  Orient  are  classifying  much  more  definitely  than 
ever  they  did  the  rugs  that  they  are  collecting,  and 
new  names  are  constantly  finding  their  way  into  trade 
vocabularies. 

„  .  Through    the    products    of    Samarkand, 

Yarkand  and  Kashgar  we  are  led  into  the 

IMUJ3  par    £ast)  ancj    there  we   find   an  entirely 

new  style  of  rug  to  analyze  and  locate  in  the  product 
of  the  Chinese  loom.  Weaving  is  considered  in  China 
not  only  an  accomplishment,  but  a  necessary  part  of  a 
woman's  duty.  "  When  a  woman  weaves  not,  some 
one  suffers  cold,"  is  written  in  the  sacred  instructions 
of    Yung-Ching  (1723-1736)   and  long  years  and  cen- 


RUG-PLATE  XXXIII 


SENNEH  RUG 


BUG-PLATE  XXXIII 


SENNEH  RUG 
Loaned  by  Mr.  James  W.  Ellsworth 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

"  CT^HIS  is  an  absolutely- perfect  specimen  of 
■*"  Semieh  weaving,  showing  the  Herati  pat- 
tern in  the  design  in  the  field  of  the  rug.'1'' 

S.  S.  Costikyan. 


RUG-PLATE   XXXIII 


TURCOMAN    RUGS 


223 


turies  before  his  time  the  cultivation  of  the  mulberry- 
tree  and  the  breeding  of  silkworms  was  advised  by  an 
early  empress  whose  memory  has  always  been  revered 
and  has   served  to  stimulate  others   "  to  give  to  the 


CYCLE    OF    CATHAY. 


nation  an  example  of  a  thrifty  wife."  Legend  has 
given  to  Chinese  art  and  ornament  representations  of 
the  star  goddess  known  as  the  "  spinning  damsel,"  who, 
when  sent  to  earth  on  a  mission,  fell  in  love  with  a 
cowherd.     She  was  recalled  to  the  sky  and  her  earthly 


224  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

husband  died  of  a  broken  heart.  He  had,  however, 
lived  so  good  a  life  that  he  was  changed  into  a  star 
and  given  a  place  in  the  heavens  ;  but  between  him  and 
his  wife  stretched  the  Milky  Way,  over  which  only 
once  a  year  was  a  bridge  formed  by  magpies.  Over 
this  bridge  the  spinning  damsel  crossed  to  the  cowherd. 

"  On  the  evening  of  the  seventh  day  of  the  seventh  month  Chinese 
women  offer  sacrifices  to  the  spinning  damsel  and  pray  that  she 
will  vouchsafe  to  them  skill  in  needlework.  Then  they  go  to  the 
upper  story  if  there  be  one  of  the  house,  and  endeavour  to  thread 
seven  needles  with  coloured  thread  by  the  light  of  the  moon.  If 
they  succeed,  it  is  understood  to  be  a  favourable  omen  from  the 
goddess.' 

Traditions  have  been  carefully  preserved  and  given 
to  the  world  at  large  about  all  of  the  domestic  arts 
practised  by  the  women  of  China,  and  still  very  little 
definite  information  can  be  secured  recrardins:  the  ear- 
liest  methods  of  making  pile  fabrics.  Though  velvet 
has  been  made  for  many  centuries  in  both  China  and 
Persia,  it  has  not  yet  been  determined  to  which  coun- 
try it  owes  its  origin.  Though  Persia  claims  the 
invention  of  the  knot-carpet  as  her  own,  yet  no  other 
country  has  handled  wools  with  more  individuality 
than  China  in  the  production  of  carpets.  True  to 
traditional  patterns,  Chinese  weavers  simply  used 
knots  to  form  a  background  for  the  outlined  orna- 
ments and  symbols  that  at  once  designated  for  whom 
and  for  what  purpose  the  fabrics  were  intended. 
Painted  upon  vases,  woven  in  tapestries,  and  embroi- 
dered upon  silks,  the  same  patterns  are  found  that 
appear  in  rugs,  and  a  hundred  years  ago  every  one  of 
them  had  absolute  meaning,  and  garments,  hangings, 


RUG-PLATE  XXXIV 


PERSIAN  SILK  RUG 


MUG-PLATE  XXXIV 


PERSIAN  SILK  RUG 
Size:  6.4X4.4 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

"  cl    HIS  rug  is  about  Uco-hundred  years  old, 
and  originally  belonged  to  a  very  wealthy 
and  distinguished  family  in  Anatolia.'1'' 

Hadji  Ephraim  Benguiat. 


RUG-PLATE  XXXIV 


TURCOMAN    RUGS  225 

and  rugs  were  easily  read.  When  Chinese  rugs  first 
found  their  way  to  the  Occident  they  were  classed  as 
Turcoman  if  their  colours  suggested  fabrics  of  middle 
Persia,  or  as  Japanese  if  of  blue  and  white  without 
any  regard  to  weave  and  materials.  Eventually  blue 
and  white  woollen  rugs  were  found  to  be  Chinese, 
while  most  of  the  cotton  and  jute  rugs  turned  out  to 
be  of  Japanese  origin.  Later,  through  close  examina- 
tion of  the  patterns  in  rugs  that  claimed  to  be  Chinese, 
brought  to  this  country  by  those  who  had  purchased 
them  in  China,  experts  began  to  identify  fabrics  as 
Samarkand  and  Yarkand  which  had  hitherto  been 
classed  as  Persian  or  Indian,  and  Chinese  rugs  assumed 
an  importance  in  western  markets  that  until  then  had 
not  belonged  to  them. 

Covering  the  field  with  a  network  of  "  grains-of- 
rice  "  pattern  in  dull  white  through  which  a  pinkish- 
brown  ground  colour  is  seen,  many  Samarkand  rugs 
reveal  their  origin  by  their  designs.  Adherence  to 
belief  in  the  sacred  number  five  caused  early  workers 
to  break  the  fretwork  which  covered  the  field  with 
five  medallions,  one  in  the  centre  of  the  rug,  and  one 
in  each  corner,  bearing  either  dragon  and  animal  forms 
or  symbolic  floral  designs.  When,  later,  the  field  of 
Samarkand  rugs  was  left  plain,  a  floral  vine  tracery 
took  the  place  of  the  honeycomb  effect  formerly  pro- 
duced, and  scrollwork  based  on  cloud  and  joo-e  forms 
were  finally  disposed  upon  the  field  with  little  refer- 
ence or  fidelity  to  Chinese  symbolic  pattern. 

In  blue  and  white  woollen  rugs  made  in  China  there 
has  never  been  sufficient  deviation  from  significant 
and    meaningful    designs   to  cause   any   confusion  in 


226 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


the  minds  of  intelligent  observers.  Though  repre- 
sented conventionally,  peonies,  chrysanthemums, 
and  lotus  blossoms  are  easily  distinguished  from 
each  other,  and  the  citron,  known  as  Buddha's 
hand,  and  the  peach  of  longevity,  with  varieties  of 
fungus  growth,  are  distributed  over  the  field  either 
singly  or  in  groups.  Bats  and  butterflies  hover  over 
and  between  circular  forms  of  the  character  Fun,  or 
happiness.  There  are  several  ways  of  writing  this 
character,  and  it  very  often  appears  in  rugs,  as  does 
that  which  represents  good  luck  and  is  known  as  Shoiv 
of  which  there  are  a  hundred  forms.     The  two  forms 


•    i 


* 4 


CONVENTIONALIZED  BUTTERFLY  FORMS  FOUND  IN  RUG   BORDERS. 


of  Show  that  most  often  appear  in  rugs  are  found  in 
all-over  decorations  of  porcelains  and  as  embroidered 
designs  on  silk.  Five  bats  figure  as  emblem  of  happi- 
ness in  the  central  medallion  of  rugs  which  are  bor- 
dered with  narrow  stripes  bearing  conventionalized 
butterfly  designs. 

Of  the  designs  in  no  other  part  of  the  Orient  can 
as  truthful  information  be  obtained  at  the  present  time 
as  of  those  that  decorate  Chinese  objects,  and  knowl- 
edge   of  Turkish   and    Persian    ornament  in    no  wise 


TURCOMAN    RUGS  227 

helps  one  to  interpret  Chinese  patterns.     Cloud,  flame, 
dragon  motifs,  and  frets  built  up  on  the  Swastika,  the 
knot     of  destiny,    and     the    T    and    Y    forms    figure 
largely  in  the  decoration  of  Chinese  rugs,  just  as  they 
do  upon  the  porcelains  of   the   empire.     In  some  Yar- 
kand  fabrics  the  field  is  of  a  solid-coloured  tan  which 
very  strongly  suggests  camels'  hair  upon  which  blue 
and  white   designs  are  most  intricately    wrought.     It 
was  thought  at    one  time  that  the  western  influence 
noticeable  in  Samarkand  rugs  was  not  to  be  found  in 
either  Kashgar  or  Yarkand  rugs,  nor  in  those  made  in 
China  itself.     The  appearance,  however,  of  old  Chinese 
designs  in    fabrics  said  by  connoisseurs  to  be,  strictly 
speaking,   of  Samarkand    weave,    leads  us    to    believe 
that  antique  specimens  were   more    apt  to  adhere  to 
typical  Chinese  designs  than  those   made  later.     The 
appearance  of  the  fillet  in   Mongolian  ornament  is  fre- 
quent and  of  great  interest.     Surrounding,  as   it  does, 
all  sorts  of  sacred   objects,  its  meaning  is  the  same  as 
the  halo  in  Christian  art,  though   it  is   used  in    China 
to  refer  not  only  to  gods,  goddesses,  and  saints,  but  to 
the  emanation  from  any  object  of  its  sacred  and  bene- 
ficial properties.     The  power  to  shed  abroad  radiance, 
healing,  intelligence,  or  attributes  of  any  kind  is  typi- 
fied by  the  fillet. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

INDIAN   RUGS 

In  approaching  the  study  of  Indian  fabrics  we  find 
that  all  preconceived  notions  of  Hindu  ornament 
must  become  subservient  to  the  easily  proved  fact 
that  into  the  great  Indian  peninsula  at  the  present 
time  have  crept  influences  of  every  kind  that  have  so 
swayed  the  native  workers  that  everything  which  is 
now  made  there  partakes  of  the  varied  nature  of  all 
that  has  made  the  East  what  it  is. 

Indian  art  has  always  observed  structural  lines,  and 
in  it  one  feels  the  strength  of  an  underlying  plan,  and 
a  confidence  in  the  "  detail  "  of  finish  that  reveals  the 
patience  and  skill  of  the  craftsman,  as  well  as  the 
power  of  the  artist  whose  mind  has  grasped  the  con- 
structional features  of  whatever  object  he  is  creating. 
The  lines  once  determined  and  the  place  to  be  filled 
selected,  a  broad  outline  scheme  is  devised  which  lifts 
into  their  proper  places  the  extreme  limits  of  the 
design,  while  the  patient  attention  to  minute  details 
fills  every  inch  of  the  scheme  with  network  and  tracery 
of  the  most  intricate  sort. 

In  no  country  is  there  so  much  difference  between  the 
art  of  the  native  craftsman  born  of  generations  of 
Hindus,  and  the  art  of  the  conquerors;  and  while  the  art 
of  India  is  largely  Mohammedan,  the  Moslem  features 


■J} 

z 


5  1 

Q  ^ 


55 

•W 


03 

-4 
W 


ri  ft 

<  ^ 

pi  »» 

Ph  « 


55 

«! 

H 

pa 


INDIAN    RUGS  229 

are  treated  very  differently  in  that  country  to  what 
they  are  in  others.  The  making  of  piled  fabrics  is 
not  native  to  India,  though  that  country  has  always 
been  famous  for  its  weaving  of  warp  and  woof  of  the 
finest  as  well  as  of  the  coarsest  and  most  effective 
nature. 

Fifty  years  ago  the  rugs  of  India  were  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  their  fidelity  to  method  and  design. 
This  is  not  true  at  the  present  time,  however,  though 
the  English  government  has  done  much  toward  estab- 
lishing as  truly  "  East  Indian  "  that  which  has  been 
fostered  by  judicious  patronage,  and  the  scholars  sent 
into  India  for  special  study  and  to  acquire  treasures 
for  the  home  museums  have  opened  up  much  of  infi- 
nite interest.  It  is  customary  to  lament  the  some- 
what destructive  nature  of  European  methods  in  the 
East,  but  it  is  well  to  acknowledge  our  indebtedness 
to  all  effort  to  preserve  intact  that  which  seems  never 
to  be  reproduced  in  absolute  purity. 

In  the  study  of  the  industrial  arts  of  all  countries 
we  find  that  the  name  of  some  monarch  who  very 
particularly  favoured  their  development  has  come 
down  to  us  in  connection  with  objects  made  under  his 
royal  patronage,  so  that  finally  we  learn  to  know  cer- 
tain methods,  patterns,  and  styles  by  the  name  of  the 
great  patron  back  in  the  years,  who  served  his  day  by 
advancing  the  broadest  principles  of  art.  As  Shah 
Abbas  was  to  Persia,  so  was  Akbar  to  India  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  It  was  during  the  reign  of  Em- 
peror Akbar  that  Queen  Elizabeth  sent  the  first 
expedition  to  India  and  founded  the  great  East  India 
Company.     Later,    in    1614,    when    Sir  Thomas    Roe 


230  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

was  sent  as  first  ambassador  from  England,  Shah 
Jehan,  the  builder  of  the  famous  Taj  at  Agra,  and 
also  of  the  peacock  throne  so  often  referred  to  in 
descriptions  of  Indian  art,  was  emperor  of  India. 

The  dreamy  mysticism  of  East  Indian  thought  and 
philosophy  penetrates  the  most  hidden  realms  of  art 
life  among  the  Hindus,  and  even  the  most  casual 
study  of  the  fabrics  of  the  East  is  useless  without 
some  sort  of  conception  of  the  thought-life.  This  we 
cannot  too  often  admit,  and,  as  our  minds  broaden 
out  so  as  to  comprehend  the  different  attitudes  of 
the  minds  of  men  toward  interests  and  problems  with 
which  we  are  ourselves  struggling,  we  become  fitted 
to  receive  from  others  that  without  which  no  foreign 
art  can  be  interpreted. 

While  we  have  all  become  more  or  less  familiar 
with  the  names  of  cities  and  provinces  in  the  rug- 
manufacturing  districts  of  Persia  and  Asia  Minor, 
it  is  not  customary  to  mention  the  rugs  of  India 
by  other  than  the  one  comprehensive  term  "  East 
Indian."  As  the  art  of  making  "knot  carpet"  is  one 
brought  into  the  country  by  the  Mohammedans  from 
Persia,  the  workers  at  first  dubbed  all  pile  carpets 
"Persian,"  because  made  by  Persians  in  the  coun- 
try where  either  their  conquests  or  their  religion 
had  driven  them.  We  find  that  native  Hindu  art  is 
very  different  from  that  developed  during  the  later 
Mohammedan  ascendency  in  all  things  artistic.  Where 
the  former  was  heavy,  broad,  and  horizontal  in  effect, 
the  latter  was  light,  airy,  and  graceful.  Where  the 
former  was  covered  with  images  and  attributes  of 
native  gods,  the  latter,  avoiding  the  image,  indulged  in 


INDIAN    RUGS  231 

flowery  arabesques  and  caligraphic  curves.  In  com- 
bination the  two  became  foils  for  each  other,  and  com- 
bined features  that  enhanced  the  solid  nature  of  the 
former  and  the  slender  beauty  of  the  latter.  The  method 
of  manufacture  that  distinguishes  Indian  carpets  from 
others  has  a  certain  stereotyped  and  mechanical  pre- 
cision that  reveals  itself  at  first  glance,  but  which 
defies  analysis.  A  similarity  to  the  patterns  of  Persia 
being  easily  detected,  curiosity  is  aroused,  and  calls 
for  examination  of  the  detail  of  ornament.  There  are 
almost  always  some  features  distinctly  "  Indian,"  by 
which  the  judgment  may  be  biassed,  and  finally  the 
Hindu  elements  that  exist  in  the  art  of  India  are 
recognized.  We  look  to  the  native  handicraft  of 
India  for  guidance  into  the  labyrinth  of  Hindu  orna- 
ment, and  a  few  broad  principles  help  immensely  in 
our  conception  of  its  general  style. 

If  we  were  dependent  only  upon  texture,  we  should 
more  quickly  learn  differences,  and  should  detect  the 
vast  number  of  subterfuges  to  which  weavers  resort 
in  order  to  cheapen  their  products  and  enhance  their 
profits.  At  our  first  glance  at  a  fabric  we  are  at  once 
confronted  by  pattern,  making  it  almost  impossible  for 
us  to  locate  the  production.  Take,  for  example,  a 
rug  which  is  so  absolutely  Mongolian  in  design  that 
only  close  analysis  of  the  weave  convinces  us  of  its 
Indian  origin.  Coarse  wool  for  the  knots,  and  a 
loosely  woven  cotton  foundation,  added  to  other  dis- 
tinctive features,  such  as  the  insufficient  overlapping 
of  the  pile,  and  the  position  of  the  knots  on  the  warp 
revealed  by  examination  of  the  back  of  the  rug,  force 
the  fabric  into  the  Indian  division,  though  the  cloud, 


232  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

the  bat,  and    the  encircling  border  fret  are  motifs  of 
Chinese  ornament  pure  and  simple. 

We  may  more  safely  consider  design  on  any  other 
objects  of  Indian  art  than  on  rugs ;  for,  since  the 
English  occupation,  the  weavers  have  been  controlled 
by  European  and  American  masters,  and  designs  most 
popular  in   the  commercial  centres  of  the  world    are 

woven  by  natives  who 
give  their  services  for  a 
small  return.  Upon 
articles  made  for  native 
use, — brasses,  jewellery, 
pottery,  and  particularly 
in  printed  textiles, — we 
find  vigourous  Hindu 
ornament ;  and  even  in  so 
called  grotesques  we  are 
able  to  study  the  differ- 
ence between  the  Hindu 
imagination,  that  bows 
independently  before  the 
idol  whose  attributes  are 
made  manifest  by  pos- 
itions and  symbols,  and 
that  of  the  Mohammedan 
worker,  which  shows  the 
jain  buddhist  symbol  found  in     dignified     recognition   of 

TEXTILES.  .  ,  .  ... 

the   leadership    of  a  pro- 

Swastika  suggests   grades  of  existence,  *  x 

and  four  directions.    Three  jewels  denote:—  phet     wllO       SO      Cai'efullv 

right  belief: — right  knowledge: — right  con  "  ' 

duct      Crescent  indicates  expanding  power  WOrked     Out    the    laWS  '  of 
of   the   soul   in   upward  direction.     Upper 

jewel  is  emblem  souls  life  apart  from  matter,  life  that  everything  bears 

evidence  of  allegiance  to  accepted  form. 


MUG-PLATE  XXXV 


SAMARKAND  RUG 


RUG-PLATE  XXXV 


SAMARKAND  RUG 

Size:  13.  X10.6 

Loaned  by  Kent-Costikyan 

Author's  Description 

T  Nthis  carpet  are  to  be  found  Chinese  motifs 
-*  which  have  been  distributed  in  various  bor- 
der stripes  after  the  Persian  fashion.  The 
sacred  mountain  arises  from  the  waves  on  either 
side  and  on  both  ends  of  the  rug  in  the  broad 
outside  border.  Cloud  forms  in  an  entire  band 
are  separated  from  the  swastika  fret  by  plain 
stripes  of  solid  colour.  Narrower  frets  bound 
the  inner  floral  border,  which  is  not  Mongolian 
in  style.  In  conventionalizing  the  flower  motifs 
in  the  centre  and  in  the  corner  designs,  the 
weaver  has  adapted  the  butterfly  pattern  to  his 
needs,  and  skilfully  rounded  the  outlines  of  the 
medallion,  ivhich  ordinarily  ivould  be  rendered 
in  octagon  form. 


Rl  G-PLA  IK  XXXV 


INDIAN    RUGS  233 

Consideration  of  the  underlying  principles  that  con- 
trol individual  workers  will  invariably  assist  in  the 
examination  of  objects.  Even  in  modern  carpets,  in 
which  European  designs  are  copied,  native  workman- 
ship reveals  itself  not  only  in  the  handling  of  materials, 
but  in  precision  in  following  patterns.  These  modern 
carpets  of  India  are  easier  to  identify  than  any  we 
meet  in  the  ordinary  traffic  of  life  ;  but,  however 
attractive  and  useful  they  may  be  in  furnishing  the 
home  of  to-day- with  satisfactory  floor-coverings,  they 
are  of  no  importance  to  the  student  of  historic  orna- 
ment and  symbolism.  It  is  at  the  same  time  both 
wise  and  necessary  to  separate  the  weavings  of  India 
from  those  of  Persia  which  they  copied. 

The  royal  ceremonies  observed  in  India  have  from 
the  beginning  of  time  called  for  the  most  gorgeous 
fittings,  and  native  methods  of  decorating  textiles  of 
smooth  surface  were  copied  in  pile  fabrics  when  the 
knot  carpet  was  first  made  in  India.  In  costumes  and 
household  fittings  Indian  ornament  is  found  untouched 
by  outside  influences,  revealing  to  those  who  have 
studied  the  caste  system  much  that  it  is  important  to 
know.  The  social  and  religious  institutions  of  the 
country  have  divided  the  population  into  four  castes  : 
(1)  the  Brahmins,  or  priests;  (2)  the  warriors  and 
princes ;  (3)  the  husbandmen  ;  (4)  the  labourers.  All 
the  ceremonial  life  of  India  is  based  on  the  laws 
and  principles  contained  in  ancient  Sanskrit  writings, 
and  the  epic  poems  of  the  Hindus  relate  to  the  strug- 
gles of  their  deities  with  warring  and  powerful  evil 
influences,  to  their  various  incarnations,  and  to  the 
emblems  and   symbols   by  which  they  are  revealed  to 


234  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

man.  Many  of  the  legends  most  often  pictured  in  the 
art  of  India  art  are  very  revolting,  but  because  they 
embody  both  religious  and  historical  knowledge  they 
are  constantly  pictured  in  Hindu  art.  The  crude 
primitive  way  has  always  obtained  of  expressing 
power  by  strange  physical  forms,  attributes,  and 
contortions.  Many  bodies,  arms,  hands,  and  eyes 
representing  Omnipresence,  Omnipotence,  and  Omni- 
science. 

"  The  embodied  spirit  has  a  thousand  heads, 
A  thousand  eyes,  a  thousand  feet,  around 
On  every  side  enveloping  the  earth, 
Yet  filling  space  no  larger  than  a  span. 
He  is  himself  this  very  universe-: 
He  is  whatever  is,  has  been,  and  shall  be, 
He  is  the  lord  of  immortality."* 

All  of  these  considerations  are  quite  necessary  in 
approaching  the  art  of  one  country  after  studying 
that  ot  another.  The  eye  is  apt  to  note  likenesses 
without  detecting  differences,  and  the  culture  which 
makes  the  Occidental  keenly  alive  to  that  which  indi- 
cates foreign  craftsmanship  is  sometimes  at  fault  in 
classing  merely  as  Oriental  the  productions  of  peoples 
so  different  from  each  other  that  it  is  at  least  incon- 
siderate to  monopolize  the  work  of  their  hands  with- 
out recognizing  the  impulses  that  prompted  it. 

T  Forty  years  ago,  coarse  carpets  came  to 

this    country  in    small  quantities    bearing 

TKUCjS  tjie    name    0f    Calcutta.     Many    of    these 

fabrics  are  still  to  be  seen    in   the  homes  where  they 

then  found  resting-places.     They  were  made  of  coarse, 

*  Vedic  Hymn. 


I  N  D  I  A  N    R  U  G  S  235 

heavy  cotton  or  jute  warp,  tied  with  knots  of  yak's 
hair  of  dull  yellowish  brown  colour.  Several  threads  of 
woof  were  thrown  across  after  each  row  of  knots  tied, 
and  the  carpets  were  very  loose  in  texture.  In  other 
varieties  the  entire  pile  was  dyed  black,  and  crossed 
at  regular  intervals  with  a  trellis  effect  in  natural- 
coloured  yak's  hair.  The  field  in  these  carpets  was 
surrounded  by  one  very  narrow  confining  border  bear- 
ing an  insignificant  pattern  ;  but  a  pleasing  sobriety 
about  the  rugs  themselves  makes  them  recognizable 
when  from  time  to  time  their  hiding-places  are  dis- 
covered. Whether  these  rugs  were  made  in  Calcutta 
or  bore  the  name  of  their  market-place  is  not  now 
known. 

Following  closely  upon  these  dull-coloured  yak's 
hair  rugs  came  a  fearful  expression  of  the  combina- 
tion of  Oriental  and  European  talent.  Wonderful 
indeed  were  the  rugs,  sold  as  "  Indian,"  which  bore  as 
the  only  ornament  upon  a  dark  background  a  huge 
bouquet  made  according  to  English  regulations. 
These  bouquets  were  strongly  suggestive  of  those 
worked  in  cross-stitch  upon  canvas  in  the  Berlin-wool 
hearthrugs  which  at  the  expense  of  eyesight  and 
unlimited  time  had  been  made  during  the  1830- 
50  period  by  the  ladies  of  Europe.  The  so-called 
"Calcutta  rugs"  were  native  East  Indian  products. 
Those  decorated  with  large  bouquets  were  foreign 
monstrosities.  Ever  since  that  time  the  same  sort  of 
thing  has  gone  on  in  India.  Brain  control  of  native 
fingers  has  given  floor-coverings,  but  has  done  away 
with  works  of  sentiment.  One  interest  need  not  con- 
flict with  the  other,  neither  should   one  be  mistaken 


236  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

for  the  other.  Our  avowed  purpose  in  analytical 
study  is  so  to  familiarize  ourselves  with  standards  and 
types  that  the  individual  rug  may  stand  as  a  work  of 
art  and  object  of  sentiment,  and  be  studied  as  such. 

Xabore  an&      ,J*a?nade  ™PT '  tho"gh  they  !,ave 

_.  _  often  been  described  as    being  without 

Bora  IRugs  . ,  (  ■  ,.  ..    ,  ,   . 

v  v        any    evidence    or    individual    taste    or 

preference  in  the   selection   of  materials  or  patterns, 
were  not  utterly  lacking    in    interest   when   they   first 
appeared  in  India.     There  was  something  about  them 
that  completely  distinguished  their  designs   from  the 
Persian    patterns   they    copied.     Whether   it  was  the 
handling   of  curves    and    vines    in    the    design,  which 
showed  the  peculiar  ability  of  the  native  to  consider 
structure  as  well  as  details  in  planning  things  artistic, 
or  whether  in  the  early  management   there   was  more 
confidence  placed  in    the    native   worker  than    at  the 
present  time,  cannot   be  clearly  proved.     As  the   car- 
pets reached    England,  however,    they   carried   strong 
marks  of  Indian  manufacture,  and  a  mixture   of  dyes 
which,  if  chemical  in  part,  at  least  adhered   to  native 
usage  in  producing  a  blue  that  had   a  distinct  quality 
about    its    almost    black    colouring.       Old    Agra    and 
Lahore  carpets  introduced  to  most  of  the  present-day 
owners    of    them     the    interesting    manufactures    of 
India,  and    the  art    and    industry  of    that    land    have 
infatuated    enthusiasts    who     treasure    the    few    rare 
authenticated    antique     specimens     they    possess    as 
distinct  from  anything  obtainable    anywhere  outside 
of    India, — the    land    where     neither    Buddhist    nor 
Mohammedan    has   succeeded   in  driving  out  ancient 
beliefs ;    where    the    mystic    teaches    control    of    the 


M  UG-PLA  TE  XXX  VI 


PERSIAN  SILK  MOSQUE  RUG 


B  LG-PLA TE  XXXVI 


PERSIAN  SILK  MOSQUE  RUG 

Author's  Description 

TN this  rug  caligraphic  ornamentation  is  so 
-*  combined  with  floral  forms  that  it  is  abso- 
lutely disguised  until  close  scrutiny  discovers 
Arabic  curves  in  the  centred  ornament,  which 
in  conventionalized  tree  form  is  lifted  into 
•prominence  upon  a  field  of  deep  rich  red  most 
beautifully  shaded. 

There  is  much  significance  and  interest  in 
the  treatment  of  the  flower  formS  which 
decorate  the  base  of  the  prayer-niche. 


RUG-PLATE  XXXVI 


INDIAN    RUGS  237 

spirit,  while  the  fakir  indulges  in  disgusting  acts 
of  penance  which  he  considers  meritorious ;  and 
which  has  given  to  ornament  link  after  link  of  mean- 
ingful symbols  which,  forged  by  Brahman,  Buddhist, 
and  Mohammedan  in  turn,  have  made  a  chain  of  evi- 
dence by  which  ancient  thought  is  connected  with 
modern  research.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  some  day 
more  will  be  understood  than  now  is  of  the  less  gro- 
tesque and  more  ornate  art  of  the  Hindus.  Early 
Christian  writers  about  "heathen  peoples  and  heathen 
gods"  have  exaggerated  all  that  is  awful  in  Oriental 
art,  and  while  such  evil  undoubtedly  exists  it  should 
not  be  dwelt  upon  to  the  exclusion  of  all  recognition 
of  that  which  is  good. 

The  name  of  Agra  is  connected  with  the  great 
monarch  Akbar,  who  built  the  castle  of  Agra  for  his 
royal  residence.  ]  Over  one  hundred  years  ago,  in  an 
account  of  a  returned  traveller,  was  written  the  follow- 
ing report  for  the  East  India  Company  in  England. 

"The  Emperor  Akbar,  born  in  1541,  is  the  favourite  of  Euro- 
pean writers,  and  he  deserves  the  praises,  not  of  Europeans  alone, 
but'of  mankind  at  large.  There  is  a  principle  of  vicissitudes  in 
human  occurrences  that  generally  causes  men,  eminently  prosper- 
ous and  great,  to  rise  from  the  cradle  of  turmoil  and  calamity. 
Of  this  the  Emperor  Akbar  is  a  proof.  Born  in  circumstances 
more  adventurous  than  are  usually  devised  by  the  penman  of  ro- 
mance, and  nursed  amid  armed  contention,  he  stepped  forth  pre- 
pared to  meet  the  rudest  shocks  of  unpropitious  fortune,  endued 
with  self-command  sufficient  to  resist  the  more  dangerous  bland- 
ishments of  success.  That  vice  of  nobler  souls,  ambition,  was 
perhaps  the  failing  of  Akbar.  The  darling  object  of  his  medita- 
tions was  the  subjugation  of  the  whole  peninsula  of  India. 
It  would  wear  the  appearance  of  a  faulty  attachment  to  a  partic- 
ular character  if  we  endeavoured   to  entirely  excuse  this  seeming 


238  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

thirst  after  power.  But  Akbar  in  the  great  majority  of  his  actions 
assuredly  studied  the  advancement  of  human  happiness  with  views 
so  exalted  and  comprehensive  that  they  often  soared  above  the 
possible  accompaniment  of  popular  capacity.  Akbar  resided  at 
Agra,  which  he  preferred  to  Delhi,  and  bent  his  attention  in  times 
of  peace  to  the  encouragement  of  the  arts.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  the  horrors  of  war  should  interrupt  deliberations  so  univer- 
sally beneficial  as  those  of  Akbar.  Various  revolts  among  the 
nobles  of  the  court  arrested  the  career  of,  his  vast  schemes  for  the 
improvement  of  humankind."  \   ^^ 

The  study  of  Oriental  rugs  must  necessarily  be  a 
study  of  history.  Akbar's  influence  upon  the  art  and 
industry  of  his  time  antedated  the  enthusiasm  of 
Shah  Jehan,  who  in  1634  formed  the  resolution  to 
rebuild  the  ancient  capitol  of  Hindustan  in  a  manner 
likely  to  celebrate  his  name  among  posterity.  The 
most  skilful  architects  and  masons  for  this  undertak- 
ing were  procured  from  various  distances.  The  Em- 
peror drew  the  outlines  of  his  new  city  on  a  large 
plain  on  the  western  banks  of  the  Jumna  :  and  in  con- 
structing it  made  use  of  the  same  sort  of  red  stone,  of 
the  hardness  and  colour  of  jasper,  brought  from  the 
quarries  of  Fettipore,  which  Akbar  had  employed  in 
building  the  castle  of  Agra.  The  city  was  fortified 
with  twelve  lofty  towers  and  had  as  many  magnificent 
gates  :  the  principal  gate  fronted  the  palace  and  was 
of  uncommon  magnitude  and  grandeur.  The  palace 
itself  surpassed  everything  of  the  kind  in  India,  the 
walls  of  the  principal  apartments  being  lined  with  mar- 
ble, and  the  ceilings  of  many  of  them  overlaid  with 
plates  of  silver.  The  grand  mosque  was  also  with- 
out a  rival,  being  encrusted  within  and  without  with 
marble   of    various  colours.     Shah   Jehan's    principal 


4 


INDIAN    RUGS  239 

care  was  to  make  two  gardens  of  inconceivable  mag- 
nificence, called  the  Gardens  of  Shalimer.  Here  were 
grottoes  of  great  extent  and  depth,  where  the  beams 
of  the  sun  never  penetrated  ;  canals  of  fairest  water, 
filled  with  gold  and  silver  fishes  ;  and  fountains  that, 
forever  playing,  diffused  a  refreshing  coolness  around  ; 
while  the  choicest  flowers  and  fruits  of  Asia,  by  their 
fragrance  and  their  flavour,  on  every  side  ministered 
to  the  gratification  of  the  senses.  Shah  Jehan  had  a 
natural  taste  for  voluptuous  magnificence  :  a  long 
list  of  plundered  provinces  rendered  up  their  dear- 
est treasures,  and  the  palace  blazed  with  tributary 
\diamonds. 


"  By  Shah  Jehan  was  constructed  the  famous  Tukt  Taous  or 
peacock  throne,*  the  body  of  which  was  solid  gold  encrusted  with 
diamonds,  rubies,  emeralds,  and  sapphires.  It  was  called  the 
peacock  throne  from  having  the  figures  of  two  peacocks  standing 
behind  it,  with  their  tails  expanded,  which  were  studded  with  vari- 
ous jewels  to  represent  the  life.  Between  the  two  peacocks 
stood  a  parrot  of  the  ordinary  size,  cut  out  of  one  emerald.  A 
most  sumptuous  gallery  was  likewise  to  be  seen  in  Delhi.  The 
interior  of  this  building  the  Emperor  had  intended  to  cover 
entirely  with  a  kind  of  lattice-work  of  emeralds  and  rubies,  so  dis- 
posed as  to  present  the  appearance  of  grapes  in  the  different 
stages  of  growth,  from  early  green  to  the  deep  red  of  maturity. 
This  plan  was  commenced,  and  three  stalks  of  a  vine,  with  their 
leaves  and  fruit,  were  constructed,  but  to  complete  this  dazzling 
vineyard  was  found  impossible,  as  the  known  world  did  not  con- 
tain sufficient  jewels  for  the  purpose.  The  design,  however, 
merits  praise  as  one  of  the  most  gorgeous  projects  that  ever 
entered  the  human  imagination."  f 


*  Now  in  the    royal    treasury  at    Teheran,  having  been    taken 
there  as  spoil  by  Nadir  Shah  in  1739. 

f  From  a  book  of  travel  written  by  an  unknown  author  in  181 2. 


24o  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

That  the  carpets  and  hangings  for  some  of  the 
buildings  erected  for  these  famous  monarchs  were 
magnificent  enough  to  hold  their  own  in  the  midst  of 
such  luxurious  surroundings  argues  well  for  the  time 
and  labour  spent  upon  them. 

During  the  sixteenth  century  Persian  designs  were 
favoured  by  the  royal  patron  of  the  arts,  and  ever 
since,  with  little  deviation,  the  East  Indian  has  built 
upon  the  art  of  Persia  in  the  manufacture  of  knot 
carpets.  Purely  Hindu  designs  are  recognizable  when 
they  appear,  and  analysis  will  eventually  enable  the 
student  to  distinguish  between  native  and  borrowed 
art. 


CHINESE   RUG 

OHOU'LXG  in  the  ®juisifa  border  the  design 
*}  used  on  the  bottom  of  the  robes  of  official 
mcnuloriiis.  and  w  the  inner  border,  a  use  of 
the  T 'pattern  very  commonly  fvuud  in  Komar- 
Jcdnd  rugs.  Ljfl 


A  L  .BOOK 


.  .*>        ct  ' 


s    for  some  of    the 

for    these    famous  monarchs  were 

Id  their  own  in  the  midst  of 

suci>  argues  well  for  the  time 

m. 

;   century  Persian  designs  were 

•  n  of   the  arts,   and   ever 

ation,  the   East   Indian  has  built 

of    Persia  in  the  manufacture   of    knot 

recognizable  when 
— -, — app — ■-    ■''■■:'■    i.-')1.-:-     ■;";   f./cntuallv  enable   the 

native  and  borrowed 

aA*  'tsb-KxS  sbtauo  ->A\  s«  YY/A'IIOHO 
fo'u%  \o  ^Aa    A\  \o  mottod  aM  no  baau      & 

d  nah-tod  tuihi  9i\i  no  \mu,  ,8i<hj>bnnj« 
tDHttft  ifi  b*w©\  \v\kojwuoo  y.vn   in  attjx^T  $&\ 


CHAPTER  XXII 

LEGENDS    AND    MYTHS   THAT    MAY     BE    ILLUSTRATED 
BY   DESIGNS   IN    RUGS 

By  limiting  the  subject  to  the  selection  of  those 
legends,  and  those  alone,  which  have  found  illustra- 
tion in  symbolic  design,  and  have  passed  from  that 
to  pattern  with  a  gradual  loss  of  meaning,  we  may 
select  some  about  which  there  is  sufficient  authority 
and  evidence  to  incite  us  to  the  study  and  analysis  of 
forms  that  have  become  what  they  are  more  naturally 
than  we  would  at  first  suspect.  Such,  for  example, 
are  the  legends,  both  sacred  and  secular,  about  flowers, 
trees,  birds,  animals,  colours,  etc,  which  have  appealed 
through  the  ages  to  the  myth-loving  peoples  of  the 
Orient. 

With  acknowledgments  where  it  is  possible  to  se- 
cure the  permission  of  compilers  and  writers,  we  may 
gather  together,  for  purposes  of  comparison,  a  few  of 
the  vast  number  of  myths  and  stories  which  have 
materially  influenced  the  patterns  of  rug-weaving 
people.  The  modern  student  oftentimes  finds  it  pos- 
sible to  interpret  a  design  which  the  weavers  them- 
selves did  not  understand,  because  their  work  has  to 
them  been  only  an  idle  copy  of  a  lifeless  pattern 
which  to  us  is  evidently  an  evolved  design  which  once 
was  symbol.  One  by  one  these  forms  are  being 
traced,  and   it    is  wise  to  insist   repeatedly  upon   the 


243  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

principle  we  have  avowed,  of  never  trying  to  force 
meaning  into  design,  but  to  wait  for  it  to  awaken 
recognition  in  our  intelligence. 

By  a  definite  mental  process  we  become  equipped, 
before  we   are  aware,  with  power  to   discern   the  Ori- 
ental methods  of  manifesting  thought  in  art. 
>rru£  Foremost  among  flower  forms  the  lotus 

K  ->fn«  *^tS  *tS  reSal  liead,  supreme  from  east  to  west 
throughout  the  Orient,  where  it  has  furnished 
motifs  for  many  existing  patterns  from  time  immemo- 
rial. In  order  to  recognize  and  appreciate  the  conven- 
tionalized ornament,  which  is  historic,  one  must  be 
able  to  distinguish  between  it  and  that  which  is  mean- 
ingless and  unintentional,  for  the  most  sacred  things  of 
eastern  Asia  have  been  lightly  handled  by  the  Moham- 
medan, and  things  of  the  utmost  importance  in  Tur- 
key have  been  falsely  construed  and  copied  in  China 
and  India. 

Thousands  of  many-handed  idols  are  pictured  in 
Hindu  and  Buddhist  art,  which  look  alike  to  the 
casual  observer,  and  yet,  after  we  have  learned  that 
attributes  are  individual  possessions,  and  that  it  is 
given  to  but  few  saints  to  carry  the  lotus  in  an  exten- 
ded hand,  we  begin  to  ask  the  full  significance  of  the 
flower. 

Seated  upon  the  lotus-flower  throne,  Buddha  and 
many  of  the  Bodhisattwas  calmly  smile  upon  our  ignor- 
ance, but  after  a  while  we  discover  that  no  image 
rests  upon  the  floral  base  without  its  right  so  to  do. 
Of  late  years  art  has  felt  it  legitimate  and  right  to 
question  what  Theology  has  felt  it  best  to  pass  by 
without  comment,  and  the  Light  which  in  its  shining 


a; 
< 

< 


o 

a, 

73 

3 


LEGENDS  AND   MYTHS    ILLUSTRATED   243 

has  illumined  other  races  than  our  own  seems  indeed 
to  surround  with  a  halo  of  significance  much  that 
until  within  the  present  century  has  been  considered 
beyond  the  limits  of  orthodox  reverence. 


BUDDHIST  GODDESS  HOLDING  LOTUS-FLOWER  AND  OTHER  EMBLEMS. 


Through  successive  eras  the  ornament  that  has 
evolved  from  the  lotus  has  been  accredited  to  first  one 
and    then    another   country.     As   we    find    it    in    our 


244 


THE   ORIENTAL  RUG   BOOK 


modern  rugs,  it  is  entirely  separated  from  any  evident 
connection  with  past  thought  about  it,  and  still  it  lies 
with  those  who  are  interested  to  rescue  what  little  is 
accurate  from  the  great  mass  of  speculation  regarding 
it. 

There  is  a  vast  difference  between  the  art  that 
grows  upon  a  dead  idea,  and  that  which  feeds  upon 
living  thought  and  belief,  and  we  may  learn  much  for 

ourselves  when  it 
is  possible  to  find 
that  which  is  still 
vital,  such  as  we 
m  a  y  independ- 
ently discover  in 
the  Buddhist  use 
of  the  lotus  at 
the  present  time, 
and  in  the  atti- 
tude of  mind  of 
those  who  place 
the  same  depend- 
ence upon  its 
significance  to- 
day as  others  have  done  in  the  past. 

Although  Buddhist  thought  originated  in  India,  it  is 
now  only  possible  to  trace  the  forms  which  it  has 
adopted  in  places  where  it  is  still  practised.  From 
these  existing  sources  we  learn  that  there  has  ever 
been  that  about  the  lotus  to  lead  men  to  associate  it 
with  the  beginning  of  material  things.  It  is  repre- 
sented as  springing  from  the  "cauldron  of  the  ele- 
ments," and  its  power  to  hold    its   seeds  within  itself 


LOTUS  ARISING  FROM  THE  CAULDRON 
OF  THE  ELEMENTS 


11 UG-PLA  TE  XXX  VII 


PERSIAN  SILK  RUG 


RUG-PLATE  XXXVII 


PERSIAN  SILK  RUG 
Description  ivill  be  found  on  page  289. 


RUG-PLATE  XXXVII 


ASSYRIAN  TREATMENT 
OF  LOTUS 


»aK 


LEGENDSANDMYTHSILLUSTRATED245 

until  the  new  plant  has  developed  sufficiently  to  burst 
its  bonds,  and,  as  a  full  fledged  flower,  to  float  away 
from  the  parent  plant,  has 
made  it  an  emblem  of  immor- 
tality. 

In  form  the  symbolic  nature 
of  the  flower  has  been  utilized 
by  more  than  one  primitive  re- 
ligion. The  calyx  of  the  lotus  is 
triangular  while  its  base  is  circu- 
lar, and  such  a  combination  has  always  been  adopted 
to  represent  a  union  of  spirit  and  form,  trinity  and 
eternity.  Growing,  as  it  does,  from  impure  surround- 
ings, while  it  preserves  its  chaste  beauty,  the  lotus  has 
figured  as  an  emblem  of  purity,  and  without  doubt 
such  significance,  though  perchance  secondary  to  the 
student  of  symbolism,  has  obtained  in  great  measure 
in  the  adoption  of  the  flower  in  design. 

As  ornament,  we  find  the  Japanese,  the  Chinese, 
and  the  East  Indian  handling  the  motifs  in  different 
ways,  while  in  the  western  Orient  there  prevails  even 

now  a  form  inherited  from  the 
ancient  Assyrians,  and  the  lotus  in 
Egyptian  design  is  so  universal  as 
to  admit  of  distinct  and  individual 
treatment. 

In  ornament  which  we  may  readily 

trace    in    rugs,    we    find     the    lotus 

handled    in     both    naturalistic    and 

onventional  forms.    Used  naturally,  we  find  it  in  both 

circular  and  profile  form, — as  simple  flower,  as  emblem, 

and    as    sceptre    or   wand  :    and    in    conventionalized 


EGYPTIAN    TREAT- 
MENT OF    LOTUS 


246 


THE   ORIENTAL    RUG  BOOK 


rnmwm 


ornament,  in  both  circular  and  profile  forms,  it  figures 
as  flower,  wheel,  and  medallion. 

The  seed  and  leaf  of  the  lotus  appear  less  frequently 
than  the  flower  as  single  motifs  in  illustrations  of 
legends  and  myths,  so  that  with  the  exception  of  the 
seed-form  that  is  given   to  the    pearl   for  which    the 

dragon  seeks  we  cannot  with 
certainty  point  to  any  con- 
ventionalized form,  other 
than  the  flower,  as  strictly 
speaking  belonging  to  the 
lotus.  In  Indian  rugs  the 
broad  outline  of  the  lotus 
leaf  is  sometimes  followed  as 
a  structural  back-ground  for 
floral  ornament  that  in  no 
wise  resembles  the  actual 
lotus  ;  and  while  it  is  easy 
to  attribute  to  the  lotus 
much  that  looks  little  like  anything,  there  is  so  much 
that  is  definite  that  we  may  resign  all  that  admits 
of  speculation. 

Very  few  of  the  legends  of  the  lotus  which  have 
found  illustration  in  the  pictorial  designs  in  rugs 
have  been  interpreted  and  authenticated ;  such  as 
have  been  are  generally  to  be  traced  to  a  desire  to 
show  the  power  of  immortality  that  the  flower  posses- 
ses, and  in  some  mythological  patterns  we  find  the 
cypress-tree  of  Persia  and  the  lotus  of  India  both 
illustrating  the  same  thought. 

The  lotus  in  combination  with  butterfly  and  insect 
forms    is    sometimes    used    to    tell    the    story    of    the 


LOTUS :  PALMATE  AND 

ROSETTE  FORMS  OF 

WESTERN  ASIA 


LEGENDSANDMYTHSILLUSTRATED247 

Hindu  goddess  Doorga,  who  was  supposed  to  have 
come  to  earth  to  avenge  the  tyranny  of  the  wicked 
monster  kings  who  craved  human  sacrifices  in  the 
forms  of  fair  maidens. 

"  As  she  entered  the  grove,  her  divine  presence,  unrivalled 
charms,  and  sweet  graces,  filled  the  place  with  a  solemn  grandeur. 
The  bees  and  the  butterflies  forsook  the  flowers,  and  taking  her 
for  a  blooming  lotus,  began  to  hover  around  her  person.  The 
white,  fragrant  lotus,  hitherto  the  pride  of  the  flowers,  seeing 
itself  surpassed  in  beauty  by  the  goddess,  fled  with  shame  to 
lodge  in  the  water  for  ever.  The  delicate  graceful  neck  of  the 
goddess  drove  the  swans  away  into  the  ponds,  lakes,  and  rivulets. 
The  pearls,  finding  their  pride  sadly  broken  by  the  bright  teeth 
of  the  goddess,  hid  themselves  in  shells  at  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean,  the  wild  deer  ran  frantic  to  see  her  eyes  far  superior  to  its 
own." 

With  numberless  such  fanciful  tales  to  draw  from, 
the  Oriental  artist  has  but  to  select  his  wools,  erect 
his  loom,  stretch  his  warp,  and  dream  through  the 
days  and  years,  in  order  to  confound  us  with  the  com- 
bined work  of  his  memory,  his  fancy,  and  his  fingers. 

Few,  indeed,  of  the  vast  number  of  myths  and 
legends  which  are  stored  away  in  the  folk-lore  of  all 
nations  can  we  be  supposed  to  know,  and  still  less 
can  we  hope  to  find  in  warp  and  woof  that  which  will 
authentically  illustrate  the  few  we  do  know  ;  but  such 
zest  as  the  effort  awakens  can  be  comprehended  only 
by  those  who  have  found  Arabian,  Persian,  Indian, 
Chinese,  and  Japanese  thought  manifested  in  material 
form. 

To  such  the  Oriental  rug  appeals  with  ever-increas- 
ing significance,  for,  in  spite  of  all  effort  to  interpret 
that   which   it  seems  ready  to  reveal,  there  is  about  it 


248  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

a  baffling  resistance  which  prevents  our  complete 
mastery  of  it,  holding  in  reserve,  as  it  ever  does,  that 
which  awaits  our  future  consideration. 

The  story  of  "The  Golden  Lotus  "  gives  us  one  of 
the  imaginary  reasons  for  always  connecting  the  eight- 
petalled  blossom  with  Lord  Buddha. 

"  He,  the  All-Merciful,  was  wandering  in  a  dreary  mountain 
place  when  he  heard  a  voice  saying,  '  Shio-giyo  mn-jiyo.'  The 
Lord  Shaka  was  amazed,  and  wondered  who  could  speak  these 
wonderful  words,  which,  interpreted,  mean,  '  The  outward  man- 
ner is  not  always  an  index  to  the  natural  disposition.'  Looking 
beneath  him,  he  saw  on  the  precipice  below  a  horrible  dragon, 
which,  looking  up,  uttered  the  words  '  Jc-shio  metsn-po'  ('All 
living  things  are  contrary  to  the  law  of  Buddha.')  The  dragon 
then  clung  closely  to  the  base  of  the  rock,  and  in  a  loud  voice 
cried  :  '  Shio-metsu  metsn'-i '  ('  All  living  things  must  die  !  ') 
To  these  remarks  Lord  Buddha  answered,  '  truly  you  know  the 
principles  that  I  would  teach,  tell  me  how  have  you  learned  what 
it  has  taken  me  many  years  to  discover?  '  The  dragon  answered, 
'  The  last  truth  I  shall  teach  is  far  more  important  than  the  others, 
but  I  am  hungry,  and  I  cannot  divulge  that  which  I  would  say 
until  my  hunger  is  appeased.'  On  being  asked  what  he  would 
have  to  satisfy  his  hunger,  the  dragon  answered,  '  human  flesh 
alone  will  satisfy  me.'  To  this  Lord  Buddha  responded,  '  Though 
it  is  forbidden  by  my  religion  to  sacrifice  human  life,  it  is  so 
important  that  my  people  learn  these  wonderful  truths  that  you 
can  tell  me,  that  I  offer  myself  as  victim,— now  tell  me  all  you 
know  ! '  The  monster  opened  his  mouth  and  uttered  the  words, 
(Jaku-metsii  I-metsu  I '  ('  The  greatest  happiness  is  experienced 
after  the  soul  has  left  the  body.')  After  which,  when  he  had 
heard  the  truth,  Lord  Buddha  sprang  into  the  open  mouth  of  the 
dragon.  As  he  did  so  the  jaws  of  the  monster  fell  apart  and 
changed  into  the  eight  petals  of  the  golden  lotus."  * 


Not  only  in  the  religion  of  Buddha,  but  in   various 
*  Greey's  "  Story  of  the  Golden  Lotus." 


i.    IMAGE    OF    BUDDHA    SEATED    ( IN   LOTUS,    2    Ml 
DALLION   SHOWING   EIGHT  ATTITUDES  OF  BUDDHA, 
3.  THIBETAN    PRAYER   COPIED    IN    RUG    DESIGNS 


LEGENDSANDMYTHSILLUSTRATED  2^9 

Oriental  beliefs,  the  lotus  is  used  as  an  emblem  of  the 
appearance  of  the  soul,  after  death,  upon  the  sea  of 
paradise.  The  flower  is  carried  in  funeral  proces- 
sions, and  the  story  of  "  birth  in  the  pure  land  "  is 
often  pictured  in  art. 

When  the  self  within  a  man  awakens  to  conscious- 
ness, a  lotus  bud  is  supposed  to  appear  on  the  lotus 
sea,  which  remains  there  until,  after  life  has  ceased  on 
earth,  the  soul  of  the  believer  finds  its  way  through 
the  stem  of  the  lotus  to  its  own  awaiting  bud,  which 
will  open  at  the  touch  of  the  soul,  admitting  it  to 
paradise. 

"  On  the  moment  of  entering  that  peaceful  scene, 
The  common  material  body  of  men 
Is  exchanged  for  a  body  ethereal  and  bright, 
That  is  seen  from  afar  to  be  glowing  with  light. 
Happy  they  who  to  that  joyful  region  have  gone, 
In  numberless  kalpas  their  time  flows  on, 
Around  are  green  woods,  and  above  them  clear  skies, 
The  sun  never  scorches,  cold  winds  never  rise, 
And  summer  and  winter  are  both  unknown 
In  the  land  of  the  Law  and  the  diamond  throne. 
All  errors  corrected,  all  mysteries  made  clear, 
Their  rest  is  unbroken  by  care  or  by  fear, 
And  the  truth  that  before  lay  in  darkness  concealed 
Like  a  gem  without  fracture  or  flaw  is  revealed." 

"  Every  man,  it  is  said,  has  a  lotus  in  his  bosom, 
which  will  blossom  forth  if  he  will  call  in  the  assist- 
ance of  Buddha." 

To  be  born  in  the  "  pure  land  "  is  the  hope  of  those 
who  desire  to  rise  through  successive  periods  of 
bondage  in  the  flesh  to  the  highest  rank  of  lotus 
purity. 


250  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

The  "paradise"  of  Buddha  has  given  more  motifs 
in  art  than  the  more  strictly  orthodox  "  Nirvana,"  and, 
as  our  subject  deals  with  manifestations,  we  must  be 
able  to  recognize  even  the  side  issues  of  great  sub- 
jects, and  the  sacred  birds  and  flowers  of  the 
"Western  Paradise"  figure  in  Buddhist  ornament 
with  numberless  objects  of  gold,  silver,  and  precious 
stone  that  make  beautiful  that  mythical  land. 

It  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  mingling 
of  Christian  with  native  teaching,  since  the  Nestorians 
and  Jesuits  carried  the  Gospel  story  into  China,  has 
greatly  puzzled  the  student  of  ornament.  At  the 
same  time  it  increases  the  interest  of  his  task,  and 
should  convince  him  that  the  half  has  not  yet  been 
told  of  all  that  will  some  day  illumine  the  pages  of 
history  and  interpret  the  art  of  to-day. 

Thibetan  Buddhism  preserves  for  us  the  "  lotus 
prayer,"  "  Om  mane  padme  hum"  which,  having  passed 
through  periods  of  immense  significance  pregnant 
with  the  most  subtle  symbolism,  has  now  become  an 
idle  sound,  repeated  as  merit,  and  accepted  (let  us 
hope)  as  worship.  "  Om  mane  padme  hum,"  the  jewel 
in  the  lotus. 

Hue,  in  his  description  of  the  use  of  this  prayer  by 
the  Lamas,  tells  us  that  "  the  doctrine  contained  in 
these  marvelous  words  is  immense,  and  the  whole  life 
of  man  is  insufficient  to  realize  its  complete  breadth 
and  depth."  He  also  tells  us  that  the  Lamas  claim 
that  all  living  beings  are  divided  into  six  classes, 
angels,  demons,  men,  quadrupeds,  birds,  and  reptiles  ; 
and  these  six  classes  correspond  to  the  six  syllables  of 
the  mantra.     It  is  by  repeiiting   these  syllables  that 


A  JAPANESE    BUDDHIST    CONCEPTION    OF    THE  APPEARANCE  OF 

SOULS  UPON  THE  SEA  OF  PARADISE,   EACH   HAVING  COME 

THROUGH   THE  STEM   OF   A   SACRED   LOTUS   FLOWER 


By  the  courtesy  of  the  Open  Court  Publishing  Co. 


LEGENDSAND  M  Y  THS  I  LLUSTR  ATED  251 


men  avoid  transmigration 
and  rise  up  in  the 
scale  of  being  till 
they  are  absorbed 
into  the  universal 
soul  or  the  grand  and 
eternal  essence  of 
Buddha. 

The  Indian  god- 
dess of  mercy,  better 
k  n  o  w  n  to  us  as 
"  Kwan  Yin,"  who, 
figuring  first  as  a  man 
and  then  as  a  woman 
deity,  has  come  down 
to  art-lovers  having 
the  lotus  in  her  hand, 
is  represented  seated 
or  standing  upon  the 
lotus,  and  as  the  guar- 
dian of  the  "  propaga- 
tion vase  "  from  which 
the  lotus-plant  issues,  ^ 
having  grown  from  a  s~ 
seed   which    has   been  ||j 


into    the    lower    animals, 


carefully  nurtured.   In    *|   J&A  - 

China     Kwan-Yin      is 

supposed      to     have 

power    to    float    on    a 

lotus  to  and  from  her 

throne  in   the   happy  isles,   and   to    call   upon    her  for 

assistance  is  to  bring  upon  the  applicant  the  greatest  of 


BUDDHIST  GODDESS  OF  MERCY  HOLDING 
PROPAGATION  VASE. 


252 


THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


blessings.  Kwan-Yin  is  greatly  loved  as  the  "  lady  of 
the  lotus,"  and  she  is  often  pictured  as  rescuing  souls 
from  purgatory  by  the  use  of  the  sacred  flower.  One 
of  the  "  Pa-hsien"  or  eight  Immortals  of  Taoism,  is 
represented   as    invariably   carrying  the   lotus  flower, 


A  CHINESE  PICTURE  OF  THE    GODDESS    OF    MERCY    DELIVERING  A  SOUL 
FROM  PURGATORY  BY  THE  SACRED  LOTUS-FLOWER. 


which  she  uses,  as  does  Kwan-Yin,  to  relieve  souls  in 
misery,  from  distress. 

An  Indian  form  of  the  lotus,  which  gives  us  a 
Hindu  notion  of  the  universe,  is  most  easily  traced  in 
many  of  the  medallions  of  central  Asia.  Wheels  are 
often  based  on  the  lotus,  and  even  star  forms  are 
found  in  its  magic  suggestion.  A  legend  of  the  lotus, 
as  sung  by  a  poet,*  tells  of  the  star  in  the  flower  :  — 


*  Mary  McNeil  Fenollosa. 


x 


o 

-I 

w 

p  ta  < 


H52 
2  w  S 

~>° 

H  ^ 

J  a  05 

p  X  o 

°Q 

W 
> 


LEGENDS  ANDMYTHSILLUSTRATED253 

"  For  years,  long  years  ago  on  lake  and  river 
The  lotus  bloomed  with  petal  curl  on  curl 
Close  folded  ;  and  to  full  perfection  never 
Had  opened  wide  those  lattices  of  pearl. 

"  Like  fair  white  maids  their  finger  tips  a-meeting, 
Like  wordless  song  unwed  to  music's  art, 
They  pierced  the  stream  each  morn  in  pallid  greeting, 
Then  shrank  in  silence,  for  they  had  no  heart. 


HINDU  IDEA  OF  THE  UNIVERSE  BASED  ON  FORM  OF  LOTUS. 

'Above  them  nightly  stars  would  lean  and  hover 
With  gifts  of  whisper  rays,  and  kisses  long; 

But  all  in  vain,  till  one  transcendent  lover 

Slid  down  from  heaven  among  the  startled  throng. 


254 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


"  At  morn  the  flowers  stood  still  like  pale  nuns  hushing ; 
But  one  among  them  throbbed  her  sweetness  far, 
Like  arms  outspread  the  full-veined  petals  flushing, 
For  in  her  trembling  heart  there  lay  a  star." 


Zhe  Wvagon 
in  Brt 


Great  importance  has  always  been 
attached  to  mythical  monsters  and 
their  representation  in  art.  Through 
Christian  teachings  the  powers  of  evil  have  been  per- 
sonified in  dragon  form,  and  the  stories  of  saints  who 
have  withstood  the  attacks  of  the  adversary  once  so 
thrilled  our  childish  imaginations  that  when,  later  in 
life,  we  find  that  the  same  legends  illustrate  art,  it 
becomes  difficult  to  dissociate  Occidental  adapta- 
tions   from  Oriental  myths,  especially    as   both   have 

found    their    way 

lifll 


into     textile      de- 
signs,    and     from 
Asia    Minor,    the 
home  of  the  story 
of  St.  George  and 
the      Dragon,     to 
the  eastern  limits 
^    of  Asia,the  dragon 
advances     in     im- 
portance   until    in 
China     he     reigns 
supreme,  the  drag- 
on of  dragons. 
The    imperial    dragon    of    China    differs    from    any 
other  dragon  form  known  in  art.     Whether  painted  on 
pottery,  carved  in  wood  or  jade,  worked  in  silk,  cast 
in  metal,  or  woven  into  rugs,  there  seems  to  be  some 


THE  FIVE-CLAW  DRAGON  OF  CHINA. 


DESIGNS    SHOWING    DRAGONS    IN    CLOUDS    WITH    PEARLS, 

BATS,     KNOTS    OF    DESTINY,    WAVES,    CLOUDS, 

SACRED   MOUNTAIN,    flDE-JEWELS,    Ere. 


LEGENDSANDMYTHSILLUSTRATED25S 


underlying  reason  for  the  accuracy  observed  by  the 
craftsman,  and  evidently  some  definite  idea  had  pos- 
session of  the  thought  of  the  designer.  It  is  precisely 
this  allegiance  to  the  absolute  that  makes  it  possible 
to  find  in  Mongolian  ornament  a  revelation  of 
thought,  and  to  it  may  be  traced  lines  and  forms 
adopted  by  tributary  dependencies  of  the  great  em- 
pire. The  dragon  with  five  claws  has  for  250  years 
marked  the  reign  of  the  Tartars,  and  is  the  imperial 
dragon  at  the  present  time.  The  Emperor  is  spoken 
of  as  having  the  "great  dragon  face,"  as  wearing  the 
"  great  dragon  robe,"  and  as  sitting  on  the  "  great 
dragon  throne,"  his  rod  the  "  dragon's  sceptre,"  his 
voice,  "  the  dragon's 
voice."  Flame  motifs 
dart  from  the  drag- 
on's body,  and  fall 
about  through  the 
water  and  air.  Wave 
and  cloud  motifs  ac- 
company him,  and 
help  us  to  discrimi- 
nate   between    water 

ARCHAIC  DRAGON  FORM  ON   STANDARD. 

dragons  and  dragons 

of  the  sky,  and  it  is    important  to  note  all  of    these 

points  in  the  study  of  mythological  designs  in  rugs. 


"  This  fabulous  dragon  of  China  is  a  monster  with  scales  like 
a  crocodile.  He  has  no  wings,  and  when  he  rises  in  the  air  it  is 
by  a  power  he  is  supposed  to  possess  of  transforming  himself  at 
pleasure.  He  can  make  himself  little  or  large,  and  rise  and  fall 
just  as  he  chooses.  He  sends  rain,  and  is  the  ruler  of  the  clouds, 
and  of  the  scaly  reptiles  the  dragon  is  the  chief.       In  the  spring  it 


256 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


ascends  to  the  skies,  and  in  the  autumn  it  buries  itself  in  the 
watery  depth.  There  is  the  celestial  dragon,  which  guards  the 
mansions  of  the  gods,  and  supports  them,  so  that  they  do  not  fall; 
the  divine  dragon,  which  causes  the  winds  to  blow  ;  the  earth 
dragon,  which  marks  out  the  courses  of  rivers  and  streams  ;  and 
the  dragon  of  the  hidden  treasures,  which  watches  over  the  wealth 
concealed  from  mortals."  * 


In  Japan   many  of  the  attributes  of  the  dragon  are 
popularly  described  in  the  folk-lore  of  the  people,  and 

those  who  find  difficulty 
in  distinguishing  be- 
tween things  Chinese 
and  Japanese  should 
particularly  endeavour 
to  avoid  deciding  too 
quickly  which  are  which. 
The  story  of  the  "  drag- 
on king  under  the'  sea," 
and  of  "  the  jewels  of  the 
ebbing  and  flowing  tide  " 
granted  as  gift  to  Prince 
Fire-fade,  with  the  ac- 
count of  "  Benten  and 
her  dragon  chariot,"  are 
Japanese  fairy-tales, 
though  somewhat  based 
on  Chinese  myths.  So 
involved  does  the  study 
of  the  legendary  monster 
become  that  life  seems  hardly  long  enough  to  deter- 


THREE-CLAW  DRAGON  OF  JAPAN. 


*  Native  author. 


•*         *J    <-—>» 


>  -* 


PORTIONS  OF  CHINESE   MANDARIN    ROBES    SHOWING    I  III     SACRED 

MOUNTAIN    RISING   FROM  THE   WAVES;    DRAGONS   (HARDING 

JEWELS;    AND    WAVE    AND    CLOUD    DESIGNS 


LEGENDS  AND  MYTHS    ILLUSTRATED  257 

mine  the  exact  story  belonging  to 
each  of  the  dragons  depicted  in 
Mongolian  art.  Consider,  however, 
the  interest  attached  to  speculation, 
when  we  know  that  not  any  kind  of 
a  dragon  is  used  without  thought  by       dragon-scrolls 

.  ~     .  .  .  .  FROM  BORDER  DE- 

the    Oriental    artist,  but    a    special    signs,  showing  sug- 
dragon    for    a    special    reason, — the       GESTION  OF  LEGS- 
dragon  of    the  clouds,  the    dragon  of    the  winds,  the 
dragon  of  the  sea, — the  great  force  behind  everything, 
— the  dragon  force  ! 

The  archaic  Chinese  dragon  had  the  form  of  a  huge 
lizard  :  as  such  we  find  him  in  undeveloped  ornament, 
a  simple  scrollwork  in  old  fret  borders.     The  addition 
of    more     clearly    defined 
motifs  by  modern    artists 
has  confirmed  the  specula- 
tive student  in  his  impres-  C^Xy^J 
sions  that  what    is    called      butterfly- 
archaic  border  the  "dragon  scroll  pattern"         scroll 

DESIGNS.  .  BORDER-MOTIF. 

is  really  founded  upon  the 
archaic    dragon    form.       This    Chinese    dragon    scroll 
pattern   differs  from  the  earliest  form  of  the  butterfly 
and  bat  ornaments  in  that  the  ends   turn    in  different 
directions. 

Dragons  are  customarily  represented  as  either  hold- 
ing or  looking  toward  a  round  object,  called  by  some 
authorities  a  ball,  by  others  the  sun,  by  still  others  a 
pearl.  The  attitude  of  the  dragon  toward  this  object, 
for  which  it  seems  to  reach,  is  most  significant,  for 
while  "  all  dragons  may  enjoy  the  chu,  or  ball,  only 
those  who    have  overcome    obstacles  and  hindrances, 


258  THE     ORIENTAL     RUG     BOOK 

and  have  mounted  to  the  heavens,  can  posses  a  chin  or 
pearl."  * 

The  shape  of  the  pearl  is  easily  recognized  :  it  has 
a  slightly  pointed  top,  about  which 
two  or  three  concentric  rinsrs  are 
described. 

Knowledge  is  at  best  but  fragmen- 
tary about  all  these  matters,  and  the 
time    has    not    yet  arrived    for  us    to 
speak  fearlessly  all  that  some  believe 
"chin  "or  pearl  to  be  signified  by  the  easier  search  of 

FOR  WHICH  DRAGON   ,,  ,  -  ,    .  .  ,    .    . 

seeks.  the  dragon   for  an  object  in  which  it 

so  manifestly  delights. 

The  few  facts  to  be  gleaned  lack  any  substantial 
evidence  that  they  may  be  considered  as  relating  to 
each  other  and  dependent  one  upon  the  other.  It 
seems,  however,  highly  probable  that  the  early  orna- 
ment means  more  than  is  at  first  supposed.  Even 
those  slow  to  connect  the  early  beliefs  of  one  nation 
with  those  of  another  will  see  in  the  chase  of  the 
dragon  for  that  which  seems  to  be  constantly  within 
his  reach,  but  not  in  his  grasp,  the  ceaseless  desire  of 
the  heart  to  possess  something  of  priceless  worth. 
The  most  conservative  thinkers  agree  that  the  chin,  or 
pearl  stands  for  purity,  and  that  the  dragon  is  sup- 
posed to  reverence  and  guard  something  greater  than 
himself — purity  and  integrity — from  the  grasp  of 
demons. 

The  greatest  of  Chinese  emperors,  who  has  been 
honoured  by  loyal  followers  everywhere,  in   both  the 

*  Native  authority. 


EMPEROR    OF    CHINA 
DRAGON    AND    FUNG-KWANG,    AS    SEEN    IN'    OLD    CHINESE 
DESIGNS,    APPEAR    AT    I  Ilk    TOP    AM)    BOTTOM 
OF    FRAME 


LEGENDSAND  MYTHS  ILLUSTRATED  259 

past  and  the  present  is  represented  as  having  the 
dragon  form  and  holding  the  pearl,  as  though  in  and 
through  him  righteousness  and  purity  had  been 
demonstrated. 

A  vast  amount  of  tradition  connects  the  dragon 
with  the  great  forces  of  nature  that  are  revered  and 
feared  by  the  Chinese.  The  Feng-shui  is  perhaps  the 
most  universal  of  these  superstitions.  The  great 
dragon  and  the  powerful  white  tiger  represent  the 
wind  and  water  forces.  Nothing  is  done  without 
reference  to  these  controlling  agents,  and  they  are 
manifested  in  art  with  elaborate  diagrams  by  which 
one  can  determine  how  to  block  the  course  of  evil 
influences,  and  open  the  way  for  all  good  things. 

The  chin,  or  pearl,  is  identically  the  same  in  form, 
and  doubtless  in  meaning,  as  the  HosJiino-tama  of  the 
Japanese.  This  same  jewel  figures  in  various  ways  in 
Japanese  art, — as  the  "  tide-jewel,"  and  as  a  charm 
held  by  various  deities  and  saints.  Many  writers  have 
referred  to  and  explained  this  form,  but  as  yet  the 
facts  regarding  it  have  never  been  strung  together  so 
that  the  student  may  feel  sure  that  he  has  authority 
for  his  belief.  An  independent  theory  which  has  long 
seemed  most  significant  connects  the  form  with  that 
of  the  dried  seed  of  the  lotus,  and  with  the  germinat- 
ing power  of  that  most  time-honoured  plant.  If  it 
were  possible  to  photograph  illustrative  objects, — por- 
celains, wood-carvings,  embroideries,  silks,  and  weav- 
ings  of  various  sorts  decorated  with  the  chin,  the 
reasons  for  arriving  at  this  conclusion  would  be  evident. 

One  of  the  Pa-hsien  or  eight  Immortals  of  China, 
who  holds  the  lotus  blossom    as   her   emblem,  is  often 


260 


THE  ORIENTAL  RUG  BOOK 


represented  as  lifting  the  flower  form  as  a  votive  offer- 
ing at  a  shrine,  and  from  the  flower  seems  to  arise  the 
seed,  which  is  in  the  exact  form  of  the  chin,  or  pearl. 
In  images  of  Buddha,  seen  everywhere  in  temples  and 
depicted  as  ornament  for  household  shrines,  is  the 
"jewel,"  either  held  in  the  hand  of  him  who  sits  upon 
the  lotus  throne,  or  emanating  from  the  sacred  person 
as  attribute.  In  some  cases  the  heads  of  Buddhist 
saints  take  the  form,  the  hair  framing  it  as  the  flame 
that  is  commonly  seen  all  about  the  jewel. 

The  dragon  of  Japan  has  but  three  claws,  and,  as  it 

has  been  adopted  in 
both  form  and  meaning 
from  the  Chinese,  it  is 
not  always  as  true  to 
tradition  as  his  Majesty, 
Lung,  the  dragon  of 
China,  and  he  some- 
times appears  without 
the  jewel,  and  'very 
often  with-out  the  ball. 
In  the  fanciful  way  in 
which  the  Japanese 
treat  even  the  most 
serious  thoughts  of  the 
older  art,  they  have  developed  the  dragon  in  ornament 
so  that  in  minutest  detail  "  Tats  "  *  has  become  sicmifi- 
cant.  Their  great  dragon  is  supposed  to  have  nine 
dragon  children,  who  have  strong  antipathies  and 
fancies.  One  dragon  lovessounds,  and  is  used  to  dec- 
orate bells  and  musical  instruments.     Another  loves 


JAPANESE    IMPERIAL    CREST. 


*  The  Japanese  name  for  dragon. 


LEGENDSANDMYTHSILLUSTRATED261 

dangerous  places  and  is  carved  upon  roofs,  angles,  and 
corners.  The  dragon  who  loves  to  bear  weight  is  used 
to  decorate  tables,  and  is  placed  in  all  positions  where 
heavy  weight  may  rest  upon  him.  And  so  on  through 
the  entire  dragon  family. 

It  was  to  the  palace  of  the  great  dragon  King  under 
the  sea,  that  the  fisher-boy  "  Urashima"  was  taken  on 
the  wonderful  fringed-tail  turtle,  and  as  emblem  of 
longevity  in  far-away  Nippon  the  fabulous  tortoise 
ends  the  travels  which  originated  in  the  Hindu  legends 
of  birth. 

Without  end  the  mythology  of  the  East  has  materi- 
ally influenced  European  art,  and  in  no  form  of  orna- 
ment can  it  be  traced  more  absolutely  than  in  that  of 
the  pearl,  which  as  the  "ball  and  claw  "  design,  ter- 
minated the  legs  of  tables  and  chairs  when  admiration 
of  things  Oriental  was  in  vogue  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries. 

In  the  rucrs  of  Samarkand  and  eastern  Turkestan  we 
find  dragon  forms  that  adhere  to  Chinese  traditions, 
but  there  is  a  perceptible  change  in  the  drawing  of  the 
monster  whenever  he  appears  in  Indian  or  Persian 
fabrics.  In  old  Ispahan  rugs,  in  which  Mongolian 
features  are  sometimes  combined  with  strictly  Persian 
ornament,  we  find  the  dragon  a  beast-like  creature 
with  elongated  body  and  cumbersome  legs,  walking 
about  with  other  animals,  which  he  is  subduing  or 
with  whom  he  is  fighting.  As  one  who  frequently 
attacks  and  destroys  the  birds  who  are  feeding  upon 
the  "tree  of  life,"  he  is  pictured  in  Indian  ornamenta- 
tion of  rugs  that  show  both  Persian  and  Chinese  influ- 
ence, though  made  in  India  and  by  Mohammedans, 
showing   how   lax   the  devotees   of   any  religion  may 


262  THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

become  when  broken  up  into  sects,  who  handle  orig- 
inal tenets  with  individual  liberty. 

Not  alone  the.  entire  body  of  the  dragon  appears  in 
rug  designs,  but  the  claw, — the  scale, — the  flame,  and 
the  cloud,  furnish  motifs  that  are  distinctive  and 
significant. 

From  the  earliest  times  beads  have  been 
used  by  the  devotees  of  the  various  religions 
iROSarS  throughout  the  WOrld,  Buddhists,  Moham- 
medans, and  Christians  alike.  With  the  impulse  born 
of  the  human  craving  for  some  tangible,  outward  and 
visible  sign  of  his  inward  and  spiritual  nature,  man 
has  attached  to  the  rosary  deep  significance  as  a  sym- 
bol of  prayer  and  devotion,  and  through  the  ages  has 
counted  his  beads  reverently  in  his  effort  to  reach  up 
through  the  medium  of  the  known  to  the  unknown. 
With  the  ability  born  of  human  capacity  for  suffering, 
the  Pagan  and  the  Christian  alike  attach  significance 
to  that  which  can  be  handled  to-day  in  memory  of 
that  which  was  yesterday.  Whether  to  chronicle  an 
event,  to  register  a  vow,  or  to  remind  one  of  the 
great  phenomena  of  nature,  beads  have  well  served 
the  end  to  which  they  have  been  dedicated. 

With  the  idea  of  gathering  together  the  allusions 
made  by  various  authorities  to  the  use  of  the  rosary 
throughout  religious  history,  the  following  compila- 
tion was  recently  made  and  privately  published  and 
is  here  inserted  by  permission  of  the  compiler.* 

*  "  A  Few  Notes  on  the  Rosary  "  compiled  by  Miss  Stow,  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  for  private  circulation;  the  privilege  to  use  the 
various  excerpts  having  been  obtained  from  authors  and  publish- 
ers whose  names  are  given.  The  illustrations  are  from  Miss 
Stow's  collection  of  Rosaries. 


A.  COLLECTION    OF   ROSARIES:     ROMAN  CATHOLIC,    BUDDHIST    AND 
MOHAMMEDAN.     B.    ROMAN  CATHOLIC  ROSARIES 


LEGENDS  AND  MYTHS    ILLUSTRATED  263 

"  Rosaries  are  used  by  Buddhists,  Christians,  Mohammedans, 
and  Hindus.  The  Mohammedans,  as  each  bead  passes  through 
their  hand,  recite  one  of  the  one  hundred  attributes  of  the  Creator. 
Their  rosary  has  one  hundred  beads,  that  of  the  Burmese  Budd- 
hist, one  hundred  and  eight.  The  one  thousand  names  of  Vishnu 
and  Siva  are  strung  together  in  verse,  and  are  repeated  on  certain 
occasions  by  Brahmans  as  a  '  litany  accompanied  sometimes  with 
the  rosary.'  As  each  name  is  mentally  recited,  with  the  attention 
abstractedly  fixed  on  the  attribute  or  character  of  which  the 
names  excites  the  idea,  a  bead  is  dropped  through  the  finger  and 
thumb  ;  such  operation  is  supposed  to  assist  or  promote  abstrac- 
tion, an  attainment  which  enthusiastic  Hindus  think  exceedingly 
efficacious."  * 

-I*      ».  "  Beads  were  anciently  used  to  record  time,  and  a 

circle,  being  a  line  without  termination,  was  the  natural 
emblem  of  its  perpetual  continuity  ;  hence  we  often  find  circles  of 
beads  upon  the  heads  of  deities  and  enclosing  the  sacred  symbols 
upon  coins  and  other  monuments."  t 

•jg^aN  "  The  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  beads  is  at  the 

lftmt<Vtfv><>«  basis  of  the  use  of  rosaries,  which,  as  used  in 
Europe,  are  almost  certainly  of  Eastern  origin, 
imported  in  the  Middle  Ages  in  imitation  of  those  worn  by  Budd- 
histic or  Hindu  acetics,  who  ascribe  to  them  manifold  virtue. 
Such  are  those  of  the  Taldst  or  sacred  basil,  worn  by  Vaishnavas, 
and  those  of  the  Rudraksha  worn  by  Saivas."  J 

3-£lDaiteSC       "  ^ne  most  casual  observer  among  residents  in 
-£  Asiatic  countries,  where  the  Buddhist  religion  pre- 

dominates,  must  be  familiar  with  the  name  and 
form  of  the  rosary  carried  by  the  monks  of  the  different  sects, 
either  in  the  hand  or  twisted  round  the  waist.  .  .  .  However,  to 
a  student  of   Buddhism  the  matter   presents  a   different  aspect. 


*  Edward  Balfour,  "  Cyclopedia  of  India." 
t  Richard  Payne  Knight,  "  Ancient  Art  and  Mythology." 
I  W.  Crooke,  "  The  Popular  Religion  and  Folk-Lore  of  North- 
ern India," 


264  THEORIENTAL    RUGBOOK 

He,  if  he  wishes  to  attain  any  proficiency  in  the  subject  which  he 
has  undertaken,  must  grapple  with  and  solve  these — however 
trivial — technicalities,  for  they  are  the  stepping-stones  from  which 
in  the  future  he  may  be  able  to  obtain  a  comprehensive  view  of 
this  vast  dogma  of  Buddhism,  with  all  its  intricate  network  of 
metaphysical  reasoning,  round  which  unceasingly  revolves  the 
Wheel  of  Law.   .  ,  . 

"  The  rosary,  or  jiu-dzn,  which,  as  its  name  implies,  consists  of 
a  number  of  beads,  or  counters,  for  marking  the  number  of  pray- 
ers recited,  seems  to  have  been  in  use  among  the  Buddhists  for 
many  centuries.  Possibly  its  use  and  the  number  of  its  beads 
was  first  determined  at  the  Council  of  Asoka,  B.C.  250.  The 
original  number  seems  to  have  been  108,  supposed  to  correspond 
to  a  like  number  of  sins, — sins,  or  '  lusts  of  the  flesh,'  which  all 
human  beings  are  supposed  to  be  heir  to. 

"  The  sho-zokit-jiti-dzu,  or  rosary  used  by  all  the  sects  in  com- 
mon (in  Japan).  This  rosary  consists  of  112  beads  of  a  uniform 
size,  exclusive  of  two  large  ones,  so  placed  that  they  divide  the  112 
into  two  equal  parts,  namely  56  beads  between  each  large  bead. 
From  one  of  the  large  beads  extend  two  pendant  strings  on  which 
are  strung  21  beads  rather  smaller  than  those  on  the  main  string  ; 
these  are  here  terminated  by  two  beads  of  an  elongated  shape, 
commonly  termed  tsuyu-dama  or  dew-drop  bead.  These  beads, 
which  extend  from  the  large  head  called  ten-no-oya-dama,  or 
upper-parent  bead,  are  so  arranged  that  no  mistake  can  be  made 
in  knowing  which  is  the  upper  or  lower  part  of  the  rosary,  and  they 
also  show  which  is  the  left  and  which  is  the  right  side.  They  are 
as  follows :  Immediately  above  the  large  one  is  a  solitary  bead 
beyond,  at  this  the  strings  are  knotted.  From  this,  there  are  five 
beads  on  each  string,  when  the  string  is  again  knotted.  Still 
again,  there  are  another  five  beads  on  each  string,  which  then 
terminates  with  a  dew-drop  bead.  The  use  of  the  solitary  bead 
is  that  in  holding  the  rosary  with  the  upper  parent-bead  upper- 
most, it  should  be  on  the  left  hand  ;  this  will  ensure  the  right  sig- 
nification being  attached  to  each  bead  during  prayer.  The 
collective  name  of  these  pendant  beads  are  kami-dishi,  '  superior 
disciples.'    Extending  from  the  other  large  bead,  chi-no-oya-dama 


LEGENDS     AND     MYTHS    ILLUSTRATED    265 

— lower  '  parent-bead  ' — are  three  strings,  on  two  of  which  are  five 
small  beads,  each  being  terminated  by  a  deiv-drop  string.     These 
are  termed  the  shimo-dishi,  or  '  inferior  disciples.'     The  third  has 
ten    beads— similar   to   those    of    the    disciple-beads — without   a 
dew-drop,  these  are  used  simply  as  counters,  termed  kadzu-tori. 
.  .  .  The  upper  large  bead  has  several  appellations,  namely  .   .  . 
Upper  Parent-bead  .  .  .  Father  .  .  .  Buddha,  etc.    The  lower  large 
bead  is   styled  .  .  .  Lower    Parent-bead  .  .  .  Mother.  .  .  .  The 
Divine  Spirit  which  inspired  and  perfected  the  true  enlightenment 
of    Shivaka  Muni  (Buddha).     The  orthodox  name  of  the  dew- 
drop  is  ski  tenno,  the  four  regents  who  are  supposed  to  preside 
over  the  four  quarters  of  the  universe.     Placed  as  they  are  at  the 
ends  of  the  strings  on  which  all  the  other  beads  are  strung,  they 
keep  in  harmony  and  order  the  entire  rosary,  as  it  is  intended  to 
be  used.     The  rosary  represents  metaphorically  the  Buddhist  Pan- 
theon ;  consequently  the  position  assigned  to  the  dew-drop  beads 
is  supposed  to  be  symbolic  of  their  actual  position  of  power  and 
authority  according  to  the  Buddhist  philosophy,  presiding  as  they 
do  for  good  or  evil  over  the  welfare  of  this  and  all  other  worlds. 
...  On  the  main  string  of  beads,  at  an  interval  of  seven  beads 
either  way  from   the  Upper   Parent-bead,  are  two  beads  rather 
smaller  than  the  others,  and  generally  of  some  different  material, 
in   order  that  they  may   be    more  readily  distinguished.     Again 
from  these  smaller  beads,  at  a  further  interval  of  fourteen  beads 
on  either  side,  are  two  others  of  the  same  sort.   .  .  . 

"  The  Jo-do  Sect. — The  rosary  used  by  monks  and  laity  of  this 
sect  consists  of  two  separate  strings  of  beads,  rove  one  within  the 
other.  On  one,  exclusive  of  the  oya-dama,  are  40  beads  ;  and  on 
the  other,  exclusive  of  its  oya-dama  27  of  the  same  size  as  the  40 
on  the  other  string,  and  28  smaller  beads  placed  alternately  with 
the  larger  ones.  There  are  thus  40  on  one  string  and  55  on  the 
other,  making  a  total  in  both  strings  of  95,  exclusive  of  the  large 
beads.  The  string  which  has  the  45  beads  on  it,  in  addition  to  its 
being  rove  through  the  other  string  of  beads,  is  rove  through  a 
metal  ring,  sufficiently  large  to  enable  the  rosary  being  passed 
freely  through  it  when  being  used.  Attached  to  this  ring  are  two 
string-pendants,  on  one  of  which  are  ten  small  beads  and  on  the 


266  THE   ORIENTAL   RUG   BOOK 

other  six:  these  are  used  as  counters.  This  style  of  double 
rosary  is  peculiar  to  the  Jo-do  sect.  .  .  .  This  style  of  double 
rosary  was  first  introduced  and  used  by  Awanosuke,  one  of  the 
personal  attendants  of  the  founder  of  this  sect,  the  intention 
being  that  it  should  be  manipulated  only  with  the  left  hand, 
thereby  leaving  the  right  hand  free  for  waiting  on  and  carrying 
out  the  orders  of  his  superior.  .  .  . 

"  The  Ten-Dai  Sect.— The.  rosary  used  by  the  monks  and 
followers  of  this  sect  consists  of  a  string  of  112  beads  of  the  usual 
size,  and  one  large  bead,  oya-dama,  parent-bead.  At  an  interval 
of  seven  beads  from  the  oya-dama  on  either  side  are  placed  two 
beads  smaller  than  the  others,  and  again  from  these  at  a  further 
interval  of  14  two  more  of  the  same  size  ;  these  are  invariably  of 
some  different  material  from  the  main  number  of  beads.  .  .  . 
From  the  parent-bead,  independant  of  the  main  string  of  beads, 
extend  two  pendant-strings  of  about  four  inches  in  length ; 
having  on  one,  20,  and  on  the  other,  10,  small  beads.  These 
are  used  as  counters  during  the  recital  of  prayers,  and  when 
used  as  such,  one  of  the  10  beads  is  slipped  to  the  extreme 
end  of  the  string  after  one  round— that  is,  when  112  beads  have 
been  recited.  After  the  10  have  been  exhausted,  one  of  the  20  is 
slipped  to  the  extremity  of  its  string,  and  the  10  replaced  as  at 
commencement  of  prayer.  Thus  by  the  time  the  whole  of  the  20 
counters  have  been  used  once,  22,400  prayers  will  have  been 
recited.  This  operation  can  be  continued  over  and  over  again, 
according  to  the  spiritual  inclination  or  religious  fervour  of  the 
devotee.   .  .  . 

'  The  Shin-Gon  Sect. — The  rosary  as  used  by  the  monks  and 
laity  of  this  sect  does  not  differ  in  any  great  degree  from  the  one 
previously  described.  .  .  . 

"  The  Zen  Sect. — The  rosary  invariably  used  by  the  monks  of 
this  sect  consists  of  112  beads,  exclusive  of  one  laree  bead  or 
oya-dama  having  no  pendant  beads/zw//  the  oya-dama.  From 
the  ten-no  oya-dama,  or  large  bead,  extending  about  three  inches 
in  length,  are  the  ends  of  the  strings  on  which  the  whole  of 
the  beads  are  strung  ;  on  these  strings  there  is  a  small  stopper- 
bead  .  .  .  and  beyond  this  the  strings  are  knotted  together.     On 


LEGENDS  AND   MYTHS    ILLUSTRATED  267 

the  main  string  of  beads,  at  intervals  of  18  beads  apart,  are  four 
small  beads  (of  some  material  different  from  the  others)  two  on 
either  side  of  the  oya-dama.  They  are  termed  the  shi-ten-no — 
four  regents.  .  .  . 

"  The  Monto  Sect. — The  rosary  used  by  the  monks  and  laity  of 
this  sect  is  very  similar  to  that  used  by  the  Ten-dai  sect  ;  the 
position  assigned  to  the  four  regents  is  the  same,  the  only  differ- 
ence being  that  it  has  two  large  beads  (instead  of  one,  as  in  that 
of  the  ten-dai  sect),  and  the  number  of  superior  disciple-beads  is 
less."  * 

"  Descriptive  Notes  on  the  Rosary  as  used  by  the  Different 
Sects  of  Buddhists  in  Japan." 

ZIbC  1R0S&rV>  "  ^  's  wortny  OI  remark  that  the  Buddhist's 
\\\  ITtlhifl  rosary  is  almost  always  made  of  smooth  mate- 

rials,— stones,  coral,  amber,  or  seeds, — the  most 
common  being  the  seeds  of  the  Toolsee-plant  (the  Ocymum  basili- 
cum),  the  well-known  shrub  into  which  the  fair  maid  Toolsee  was 
metamorphosed  by  Vishnu's  wife,  who  thought  that  her  husband 
admired  the  young  woman  more  than  she  approved.  That  the 
rosary  was  in  use  among  the  Hindus  long  before  the  introduction 
of  the  Buddhist  religion  is  obvious,  for  the  most  ancient  images 
and  pictures  of  the  gods  are  frequently  represented  with  chaplets 
of  beads  in  their  hands;  but  it  is  equally  obvious  that  it  was  cor- 
dially welcomed  by  the  reformers,  who  subsequently  carried  the 
system  of  artificial,  or  rather  vicarious,  prayers  to  an  extent  which, 
though  doubtless  affording  considerable  relief  to  an  indifferent  or 
exhausted  worshipper,  is  sublimely  absurd.  .  .  .  We  must  now 
pass  from  the  Buddhists  to  the  Hindus,  and  see  in  what  light  they 
regard  the  rosary. 

"  Of  the  earliest  days  we  have  little  information — none,  indeed, 
except  the  mere  fact  of  its  being  in  use.  It  is  clear  that  the 
Buddhists  received  it  from  the  Brahmins,  and  that  the  Brahmins 
resumed  it  when  they  expelled  the  Buddhists.  The  Shastras  tell 
us  that  the  advantages  gained  by  counting  beads  are  four,  viz.  : 
(1.)    Arth,  riches ;  (2.)    Dhurm,  piety;    (3.)   Kam,  sensual   enjoy- 

*  J.  M.  James,  (The  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,) 


268  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

ment  ;  (4.)  Mosh,  salvation.  So  that  all  the  beatitudes,  temporal. 
and  external,  are  attainable  by  this  simple  exercise.  .  .  .  One  of 
the  most  important  ceremonies  in  which  the  Hindu  rosary  played 
a  part  was  in  what  was  called  the  Nama-kirt-han.  The  formula 
of  this  devotional  exercise  was  somewhat  monotonous,  as  it  con- 
sisted in  nothing  but  the  repetition  (at  least  in  Bengal)  or  the 
names  Krishna  as  follows :  '  Huri  Krishna — Huri  Krishna — 
Krishna,'  etc.  .  .  . 

"  The  variety  and  size  of  the  rosary  and  the  number  of  beads 
among  the  Hindus  constitute  a  difference  between  their  beads 
and  those  of  the  Buddhists.  Moore  says  he  once  saw  a  rosary  of 
100,000  beads,  although  the  true  rosary  as  finally  accepted  con- 
sists, like  that  of  the  Buddhists,  of  108  beads  only  ;  the  piety  of 
the  Vaishnava  [he  continues]  is  generally  estimated  by  the  number 
of  times  the  rosary  is  gone  around.  No  real  Vaishnava,  under 
whatever  circumstances,  drinks  water  or  tastes  food  without  mak- 
ing one  revolution  of  the  sacred  mala,  the  name  by  which  the 
rosary  is  designated.  It  is  an  object  of  adoration,  and  is  gener- 
ally enclosed  in  an  envelope  of  silk,  neatly  and  castefully  made.  .  . 

"  The  Hindus,  as  I  have  shown,  consider  that  all  happiness 
here  and  hereafter  is  to  be  attained  by  the  constant  use  of  the 
rosary.  With  them,  the  rosary  is  not  only  used  for  the  purpose  of 
assisting  abstractions  (though  this  is  sometimes  the  object),  but  is 
an  exercise  constantly  repeated  on  various  occasions  of  active  em- 
ployment, as  well  as  in  the  energetic  celebration  of  established 
ceremonies,  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  Buddhist  rosary, 
is,  as  I  have  before  observed,  always  smooth.  The  most  favour- 
ite materials  of  the  Hindu  rosary  is  roodrach,  an  extremely  rough 
and  rugged  seed,  unsuited  to  the  quiet  manipulation  of  the  con- 
templative Buddhist.  I  have  myself  an  idea  that  the  rosary,  or 
prayer-bead,  owes  it  origin  among  the  Hindus  to  the  sacred  neck- 
lace, or  jnala,  for  that  is  the  word  to  this  day  indiscriminately 
used  both  for  necklace  and  rosary."  * 


*  William    Tayler,  "Journal   of   the    Society  of   Arts,"    "The 
Rosary  in  India,"  1873. 


ROSARIES:    A.  BUDDHIST,    I',   MOHAMMEDAN 


LEGENDSANDMYTHSILLUSTRATED269 

1R0S3tV>  Of  "  Moore,    the    Oriental   scholar    (no   mean 

fhP  "RrflhUlfttfl  authority)  says,  '  The  1,000  names  of  Vishnu 
and  Shiva  are  strung  together  in  verse,  and 
are  repeated  on  certain  occasions  by  Brahmins  as  a  sort  of  litany, 
accompanied  sometimes  by  the  rosary.'  .  .  .  It  will  be  found  per- 
haps that  the  first  conception  of  the  necklace  was  a  string  for 
suspending  charms  and  amulets  in  a  collar,  itself  vested  with  talis- 
manic  powers.  Necklaces  and  collars  in  the  form  of  serpents 
were  thus  worn  by  Greeks  and  Romans  as  charms  against  the 
evil  eye.  Roots  and  herbs  were  thus  appropriated  as  anti- 
dotes for  sickness  and  for  their  pleasant  perfume  and  sweet  scent. 
...  It  is  easily  conceivable  that  such  necklaces — almost  all  of 
which,  as  far  as  male  wearers  are  concerned  (for  the  female  love 
of  ornamentation  is  an  entirely  different  matter,  being  simply  the 
ambition  of  personal  beauty,  common  alike  to  ancient  barbarian 
and  modern  belle),  are  connected  with  some  religious  idea — should 
gradually  assume  the  more  direct  religious  character  which  apper- 
tains to  the  rosary,  and  thus  eventually  a  sacred  or  devotional 
necklace  or  chaplet  should  be  originated.  The  chief  necklace- 
wearer  among  the  Hindu  gods  was  Shiva,  or  Muhadeo  (the 
destroyer).  His  necklace  was  not  a  pleasant  one,  being  com- 
posed of  human  skulls,  which  he  invaribly  wore,  even  when  in 
company  with  his  amiable  consort,  Parbutee.  Indeed,  his  wife 
kept  him  company,  and  she  wore  at  times  a  string  of  smaller 
skulls.* 

"  The  rosary  {japa-mala)  used  by  Saivas  is  a  string  of  32  rough 
berries  (or  that  number  doubled)  of  the  rudraksha  tree  {Elceocar- 
pus ganitrus},  while  that  of  the  Vaishnavas  is  made  of  the  wood 
of  the  sacred  tulasi  {tu/si)  shrub,  and  generally  consists  of  108 
beads.  Such  rosaries  may  be  worn  as  necklaces,  though  their 
chief  use  is  to  be  employed  as  an  aid  in  the  recitation  of  the  names 
of  the  deity  or  of  prayers.  Occasional  varieties  in  the  material 
and  form  of  the  rosaries  may  be  noticed ;  for  example,  Saiva 
ascetics   sometimes    carry  rosaries  formed  of   the   teeth  of  dead 


*  William    Tayler's    "Journal  of   the    Society  of  Arts,"  "The 
Rosary  in  India,"  1873. 


27o  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

bodies,  or  sling  serpents  round  their  necks  for  necklaces.  On  the 
other  hand,  Vaishnava  rosaries  are  occasionally,  but  rarely,  made 
of  lotus  seeds.  .   .  . 

"  Another  legend  accounts  for  the  use  of  rudraksha  berries  in 
the  rosaries  of  Siva  by  describing  how  he  once  let  fall  some  tears 
of  rage  which  became  converted  into  these  seeds.  Their  connec- 
tion with  Siva-worship  is  probably  due  to  their  roughness  and  to 
their  possessing  five  divisions  corresponding  to  the  god's  five 
faces.  .  .  . 

"  On  the  other  side  sat  a  Brahman  with  a  little  wooden  table 
before  him,  on  which  was  a  lota  of  holy  water,  several  implements 
of  worship,  and  a  copy  of  one  of  the  Puranas,  or  ancient  sacred 
scriptures.  ...  I  asked  what  he  was  doing.  '  He  is  counting  the 
beads  of  his  rosary,'  said  a  bystander,  'and  each  time  he  tells  his 
beads  he  repeats  one  of  the  1,008  names  of  the  god  Siva  over  and 
over  again,  but  this  operation  must  on  no  account  be  seen,  and 
so  the  hand  and  rosary  are  concealed  in  the  bag.'  .  ,  . 

"  Children  are  admitted  to  the  religion  of  Vishnu  at  the  age  of 
six  or  seven  years  or,  by  some  sects,  earlier.  A  rosary  or  neck- 
lace (kauthi)  of  108  beads,  usually  made  of  tulasi  wood,  is  passed 
round  their  necks  by  the  priests  {guru),  and  they  are  taught  the 
use  of  one  of  the  foregoing  formulas,  which  is  repeated  by  the 
guru,  very  much  as  the  sacred  words'  In  nomine  Patris'  etc.,  are 
repeated  by  the  priest  at  the  Christian  rite  of  baptism.*  .  .  . 

"  Next  comes  the  regular  gayatri-japa,  or  repeated  muttering 
of  the  gayatri  prayer  to  the  sun.   .   .  . 

"  The  correct  number  of  repetitions  is  108  and,  to  ensure  accur- 
acy of  enumeration,  a  rosary  of  108  beads,  made  of  the  tulasi 
wood,  is  generally  used,  the  hand  being  carefully  concealed  in  a 
red  bag  (called  go-muklu)  or  under  a  cloth."  f 
XlbC  IROSHrP  "  ^ne  P°Pu'ar  'dea  w'tn  regard  to  him  (Siva)  is 
Of  SlVH  tnat  ne  was  a  mencncant  who  gained  and  main- 

tains his  power  by   austerities,  meditation,  and 

*  Note. — According  to  Dr.  Rajendralala  Mitra,  this  is  merely 
to  aid  the  possessor  in  repeating  any  one  of  Vishnu's  names  800 
times,  the  eight  additional  beads  marking  each  100  recitations.  .  . 

t  Sir  Monier  Monier-Williams,  "  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism." 


LEGENDS     AND     MYTHS    ILLUSTRATED    271 

invocation.  .  .  .  The  conception  of  a  man  becoming  god  through 
godlike  because  most  perfectly  human  conduct  has  no  place  in 
Sivaism.  The  mendicant  becomes  a  terrible  god  by  becoming  as 
inhuman  as  possible,  and  all  the  representations  of  Siva  carry  out 
this  idea.  He  is  represented  as  having  a  third  eye  in  his  forehead, 
with  a  glance  from  which  he  strikes  dead  those  who  offend  him  ; 
his  rosary  is  composed  of  human  skulls,  in  which  he  is  said  to 
delight,  and  his  necklace  is  of  the  same.  .  .  .  He  is  said  thus  to 
be  sitting  on  Kailas,  an  unseen  mountain  of  the  Himalayas,  still 
engaged  in  meditation,  turning  his  rosary  and  engaged  in  invoca- 
tion, thereby  continually  increasing  his  power."  * 
TTttinSlHtiOtt  "  Vishnu    and  Brahma,    still  bewil- 

ot  tfjc  dered  by  the  darkness  of  delusion,  thus 

Xegeno  from  puran  said :  ' How  can  the  Iord  of  s°blins- 

the  delighter  in  cemeteries,  the  naked 
devotee  covered  with  ashes,  haggard  in  appearance,  wearing 
twisted  locks  ornamented  with  snakes,  and  mounted  on  a  bull,  be 
the  Supreme  Being?'  The  incorporeal  Prana,  then  assuming  a 
form,  thus  said  :  '  That  is  not  the  real  form  of  Shiva  ;  but  when 
united  to  his  energy  he  sometimes,  under  the  figure  of  Rudra, 
delights  himself  in  various  illusive  sports.  But  these  words  dis- 
pelled not  the  spiritual  darkness  of  Vishnu  and  Brahma  ;  when 
suddenly  appeared  between  them  a  wondrous  effulgence  filling 
the  heavens  and  earth  and  mid-air,  in  the  midst  of  which  they  be- 
held a  human  form,  vast,  uncreated,  of  a  dark  hue,  holding  in  his 
hand  a  trident  and  a  rosary  and  wearing  a  serpent  for  the  Brah- 
minical  string.   .   .  . 

"  Brahma  is  in  no  Sanskrit  work  described  as  having  ever  been 
engaged  in  battle,  or  in  the  slightest  degree  acquainted  with  the 
use  of  arms.  In  his  figures,  also,  he  is  represented  holding  in  his 
four  hands  a  manuscript  book  containing  a  portion  of  the  Vedas, 
a  pot  for  holding  water,  a  rosary,  and  a  sacrificial  spoon.   .  .  . 

"  Then,    also,   was    produced     from    the    quality   of    darkness 


*  Rev.  John  Robson,   "  Hinduism  and   its  Relations  to  Christi- 
anity." ' 


272  THE   ORIENTAL   RUG  BOOK 

another  form   with  three   eyes  and    twisted    locks,  and  bearing  a 
rosary  and  a  trident."  * 

"CbC  IBuDfcblSt        "  Tne  number  108  also  occurs  in  the  '  Lalita 
1R088rV>  Vistara,'    not   applied  to  marks    on  the  foot- 

print, but  to  a  list  of  the  '  Evident  Gates  of 
the  Law  '  ;  that  is  a  summation  of  108  things  especially  to  be 
remembered  by  Buddhists.  I  believe  it  to  have  been  a  number 
selected  somewhat  fancifully  by  some  Buddhist  mathematician. 
I  see  that  it  is  composed  of  unity,  duality,  and  trinity.  It  con- 
sists of  one  one,  two  twos,  and  three  threes,  all  multiplied  together, 
thus  : 

1X2X2x3X3X3  =  108. 

"  In  the  same  way  I  find  that  32,  which  is  the  number  selected 
for  the  signs  of  a  great  man,  is  composed  very  simply  of  the  square 
of  two  multiplied  by  the  cube  of  two.  These  numbers  seem  to 
show  that  the  early  Buddhists  were  a  mathematically-minded  set 
of  men,  or  at  least  studied  the  science  of  numbers."  t 

"  The  duty  of  constant  repetition  of  prayer  formulae  and  mysti- 
cal sentences  has  led  northern  Buddhists  to  employ  rosaries,  which 
were  used  by  both  Hindus  and  Buddhists  long  before  they  came 
into  vogue  in  Europe.  Without  these  necessary  aids  to  devotion, 
the  long  round  of  repetition  could  not  be  accurately  completed. 
In  northern  Buddhist  countries,  rosaries  ought  to  consist  of  108 
beads,  which  in  Tibet  are  said  to  represent  the  108  volumes  of  the 
Kanjun.  The  same  number  of  beads  is  used  by  worshippers  of 
Vishnu,  who  use  the  rosary  to  aid  them  in  repeating  any  one  of 
the  names  of  Vishnu  800  times,  the  eight  additional  beads  marking 
each  century  of  repetition.  The  commonest  Buddhist  rosaries  are 
made  of  wood,  or  pebbles,  or  berries,  or  bone,  the  more  costly  of 
turquoise,  coral,  amber,  or  silver,  or  even  of  pearls  and  gems.  If 
a  rosary  made  of  bones  of  some  holy  lama  can  be  procured,  it  is, 
of  course,  prized  above  all  others.     Sometimes  a  doji  is  appended. 


*  Lieutenant-Col.  Vans  Kennedy,  "  Researches  into  the  Nature 
and  Affinity  of  Ancient  and  Hindu  Mythology." 
t  Henry  Alabaster,  "  The  Wheel  of  the  Law,"  Part  III,  chapter  3. 


BUG-PLATE  XXXVIII 


PORTION  OF  SOUMAC  RUG 


RUG-PLATE  XXXVIII 


PORTION  OF  SOUMAC  RUG 

Author's  Description 

CT^  HIS  illustration  is  given  for  the  purpose  of 
-*■  shotting  an  accurately  woven  "  knot-of- 
destiny"  in  the  design.  This  may  be  seen  on 
the  right-hand  side  of  the  cut,  a  little  below  the 
centre. 


RUG-PLATE  XXX VI II 


LEGENDS     AND     MYTHS    ILLUSTRATED    274 

Northern  Buddhist  worshippers  hold  their  rosaries  (like  Roman 
Catholics)  in  their  right  hand,  and  move  on  the  beads  with  the 
left ;  and  they  will  do  this  while  talking  or  even  quarrelling.  In 
China  and  Japan,  Buddhist  rosaries  are  often  arranged  in  two 
rings.  They  sometimes  consist  of  enormous  beads  with  relics  in 
the  central  bead."  * 

TThf*  (thftt^fl^  "  ^  'on&  cna'n  °f  IQ8  balls  or  beads.  It  is 
f/ITSmihflrhi'i  called  the  chu-chu,  and  it  is  intended  to  re- 

V.  '  mind  the  wearer  of  the  land  of  which  he  is  a 

TROSar^  native.     Of  the  108  beads  of  which  the  chain 

consists,  72  are  supposed  to  represent  so  many  precious  stones, 
minerals,  and  metals  native  to  China  ;  and  the  remaining  36  repre- 
sent as  many  constellations  or  planets  which  shed  their  benign 
rays  on  the  country.  To  the  left  side  of  this  chain  are  attached 
two  very  short  strings  of  smaller  beads,  supposed  to  impress  upon 
the  mind  of  the  wearer  the  reverence  he  owes  to  his  ancestors  and 
the  filial  piety  at  all  times  due  to  his  parents  and  guardians  ;  to 
the  right  side  of  the  chain  is  attached  a  short  string  of  smaller 
beads  to  remind  the  wearer  of  the  allegiance  which  he  owes,  to 
the  imperial  throne  of  his  country."  t 

CbtnCSC  "  "^ne    Buddhist    priests   generally   wear,  while 

IBllhfthlAm  engaged  in  their  temples  in  the  repeating  of 
their  peculiar  formularies,  a  string  of  108  beads, 
slung  over  their  necks.  When  they  have  repeated  or  conned  over 
a  section  or  chapter  once,  they  move  along  one  of  the  beads  on 
the  string,  and  then,  having  repeated  another  section  or  chapter, 
move  along  another  bead.  They  are  thus  enabled  to  keep  an 
accurate  account  of  the  number  of  their  '  vain  '  repetitions."  % 

"  The  Rosary  is  a  notable  feature  in  the  private  devotions  of 
the  Buddhists,  but  the  Jo-do  sect  makes  especial  use  of  the  double 
rosary,  which  was  invented  with  the  idea  of  being  manipulated  by 


*  Sir  Monier  Monier-Williams,  "  Buddhism  and   its  Connection 
with  Brahmanism  and   Hinduism. 

\  General  Tcheng-ki-Tong,  "  The  Chinese  Empire." 
\  Rev.  Justus  Doolittle,  "  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese." 


274  THE  ORIENTAL  RUG  BOOK 

the  left  hand  only  ;  this  gave  freedom  to  the  right  hand,  '  facilita- 
ting a  happy  combination  of  spiritual  and  secular  duty  '."  * 

ZTbe  UibCtatt        "As  a  Buddhist  article  the   rosary  appears 
.jp  only  in  the  latest  ritualistic  stage,  when  a  belief 

'  "  had  arisen  in  the   potency  of  muttering  mystic 

spells  and  other  strange  formulas.  In  the  very  complicated 
rosaries  of  Japan  it  has  attained  its  highest  development.  Amongst 
southern  Buddhists  the  rosary  is  not  very  conspicuous,  but  among 
Tibetans  it  is  everywhere  visible.  It  is  also  held  in  the  hand  of 
the  image  of  the  patron  god  of  Tibet,—  Cha-ra-si.  And  its  use  is 
not  confined  to  the  lamas  (priests).  Nearly  every  lay  man  and 
woman  is  possessed  of  a  rosary,  on  which  at  every  opportunity 
they  zealously  store  up  merit ;  and  they  also  use  it  for  secular  pur- 
poses, like  the  sliding  balls  of  the  Chinese,  to  assist  in  ordinary 
calculations  :  the  beads  to  the  right  of  the  centre  bead  being 
called  ta-than  and  registering  units,  while  those  to  the  left  are 
called  cudo  and  record  tens,  which  numbers  suffice  for  their  ordi- 
nary wants.  .  .  . 

"  The  rosary  contains  108  beads  of  uniform  size.  The  reason 
for  this  special  number  is  alleged  to  be  merely  a  provision  to  ensure 
the  repetition  of  the  sacred  spell  a  full  hundred  times,  and  the  extra 
beads  are  added  to  make  up  for  any  omission  of  beads,  through 
absent-mindedness  during  the  telling  process  or  for  actual  loss  of 
beads  by  breakage.  Che'-re'-si  and  Do-ma  have  each  108  names, 
but  it  is  not  usual  to  tell  those  on  the  rosary.  .   .  . 

"  The  Burmese  foot-prints  of  Buddha  sometimes  contain  108 
subdivisions.  This  number  is  perhaps  borrowed,  like  so  many 
other  lamaist  fashions,  from  the  Hindus,  of  whom  the  Vaishnabs 
possess  a  rosary  with  108  beads.  The  two  ends  of  the  string  of 
beads,  before  being  knotted,  are  passed  through  three  extra  beads, 
the  centre  one  of  which  is  the  largest.  These  are  collectively 
called  'retaining  or  seizing  beads.'  .  .  .  These  beads  keep  the 
proper  rosary  beads  in  position,  and  indicate  to  the  teller  the  com- 
pletion of  a  cycle  of  beads.  This  triad  of  beads  symbolizes  '  The 
Three  Holy  Ones  '  of  the  Buddhist  Trinity,  viz.:  Buddha,  Dharma 


*  Griffis,  "  The  Religions  of  Japan. 


LEGENDSANDMYTHSILLUSTRATED  275 

(the  Word),  and  Sangha  (the  Church  excluding  the  laity).  The 
large  central  bead  represents  Buddha,  while  the  smaller  one  inter- 
vening between  it  and  the  rosary  beads  proper  represents  the 
Church  and  is  called  '  Our  radical  lama '  (or  spiritual  adviser),  the 
personal  lama-guide  and  confessor  of  the  Tibetan  Buddhist ;  and 
his  symbolic  presence  on  the  rosary  immediately  at  the  end  of  the 
bead-cycle  is  to  ensure  becoming  gravity  and  care  in  the  act  of  tel- 
ling the  beads,  as  if  he  was  actually  present. 

"  The  Gelug-pa,  or  established  church,  usually  has  only  two 
beads  as  dok-dsin,  in  which  case  the  terminal  one  is  of  much 
smaller  size,  and  the  pair  are  considered  emblematic  of  a  vase  from 
which  the  beads  spring.  .  .  .  Counters:  Attached  to  the  rosary  is 
a  pair  of  strings  of  ten  small  pendant  metallic  rings  as  counters. 
.  .  .  The  counters  and  ornaments  of  the  strings  are  usually  of  silver 
and  inlaid  with  turquoise.  .  .  .  The  material  of  which  the  lamaist 
rosaries  are  composed  may  to  a  certain  extent  vary  in  costliness, 
according  to  the  wealth  of  the  wearer.  .  .  .  Turner  relates  that 
the  Grand  Tashi  Lama  possessed  rosaries  of  pearls,  emeralds, 
rubies,  sapphires,  coral,  amber,  crystal,  and  Iapis-lazuli.  But  the 
material  of  the  rosary  can  only  vary  within  rather  narrow  limits, 
its  nature  being  determined  by  the  particular  sect  to  which  the 
lama  belongs  and  the  particular  deity  to  whom  worship  is  to  be 
paid.  ,   .  . 

"  The  complexion  of  the  god  or  goddess  to  be  worshipped  also 
determines  sometimes  the  colour  of  the  rosary  beads.  Thus  a  tur- 
quoise rosary  is  occasionally  used  in  the  worship  of  the  popular 
goddess  Tara,  who  is  of  a  bluish-green  complexion.  A  red  rosary 
with  red  Tarn-din,  a  yellow  with  yellow  Manjusri,  and  Vaisravan, 
who  is  of  a  golden-yellow  colour,  is  worshipped  with  an  amber 
rosary.  The  rosaries  of  the  laity  are  composed  of  any  sort  of 
beads  according  to  the  taste  and  wealth  of  the  owner.  They  are 
mostly  glass  beads  of  various  colours,  and  the  same  rosary  con- 
tains beads  of  a  variety  of  sizes  and  colours,  interspersed  with  coral, 
amber,  turquoise,  etc.  The  number  of  beads  is  the  same  as  with 
the  lamas,  but  each  of  the  counter  strings  is  usually  terminated  by 
a  vajra  ;  both  strings  record  only  units. of  cycles,  which  suffice  for 
the  smaller  amount  of  bead-telling  done  by  the   laity.     When  not 


276  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

in  use  the  rosary  is  wound  around  the  right  wrist  like  a  bracelet, 
or  worn  around  the  neck,  with  the  knotted  end  uppermost. 

"  The  act  of  telling  the  beads  is  called  tart'-c'e,  which  literally 
means  'to  purr' like  a  cat,  and  the  muttering  of  the  prayers  is 
rather  suggestive  of  this  sound.  In  telling  the  beads,  the  right 
hand  is  passed  through  the  rosary,  which  is  allowed  to  hang  freely 
down,  with  the  knotted  end  upward.  The  hand,  with  the  thumb 
upward,  is  then  usually  carried  to  the  breast  and  held  there  sta- 
tionery during  the  recital.  On  pronouncing  the  initial  word  'Om,' 
the  first  bead  resting  on  the  knuckle  is  grasped  by  raising  the 
thumb  and  quickly  depressing  its  tip  to  seize  the  bead  against  the 
outer  part  of  the  second  joint  of  the  index  finger.  During  the  rest 
of  the  sentence  the  bead,  still  grasped  between  the  thumb  and 
index  finger,  is  gently  revolved  to  the  right,  and  on  conclusion  of 
the  sentence  is  dropped  down  the  palm-side  of  the  string.  Then 
with  another  '  Om  '  the  next  bead  is  seized  and  treated  in  like  man- 
ner, and  so  on  throughout  the  circle.  On  concluding  each  cycle  of 
the  beads,  it  is  usual  to  finger  each  of  the  three  '  keeper-beads', 
saying,  respectively, 'Om  !'  'Ah!'  'Hum.'  The  mystic  formulas 
for  the  beads  have  already  been  illustrated.  They  follow  the 
prayer,  properly  so  called,  and  are  believed  to  contain  the  essence 
of  the  formal  prayer  and  to  act  as  powerful  spells.  They  are  of  a 
Sanskritic  nature,  usually  containing  the  name  of  the  deity 
addressed,  and  even  when  not  gibberish,  as  they  generally  are,  they 
are  more  or  less  unintelligible  to  the  worshippers."* 

"  Rosaries  .  .  .  are  considered  by  all  Tibetans  as  not  only  in- 
dispensable in  their  daily  devotions,  but  as  ornaments,  and  are  also 
used  by  many  as  a  means  of  reckoning  sums.  They  are  worn  by 
both  men  and  women  around  the  neck  or  on  the  wrist,  and  have 
invariably  108  beads.  Some  are  made  of  ivory,  others  of  seeds,  of 
wood,  of  bone,  of  coral,  turquoises,  crystal,  or  glass.  .  .  .  This 
rosary  contains  108  discoidal  shell  beads,  of  uniform  size,  divided 
into  four  groups  of  27  beads  each  by  three  red  coral  beads ;  where 
two  ends  of  the  strings  of  beads  come  together,  they  are  passed 
through  a  large  amber  bead,  a  smaller  discoidal,  and  a  conical  one, 


*  L.  A.  Waddell,  "  The  Buddhism  of  Thibet. 


HUG-PLATE  XXXIX 


KIRMAN  RUG 


MUG-PLATE  XXXIX 


KIRMAN  RUG 


RUG-PLATE  XXXIX 


LEGENDS     AND     MYTHS    ILLUSTRATED    277 

so  that  the  two  look  like  a  fat,  long  necked  vase.  These  last  two 
beads  are  called  do-dzm  (rdog-hdzin),  '  retaining  or  seizing  beads.' 
Four  short  leather  thongs  strung  on  the  rosary  beside  the  do-dzin 
by  silver  rings  have  silver  beads  on  each  of  them,  and  at  the  lower 
end  of  one  there  is  a  little  silver  dorje.  These  strings  are  used  as 
counters  (lirang-dzin)  in  the  following  fashion  :  When  a  certain 
charm  has  been  recited  108  times,  the  first  bead  on  the  string,  to 
which  is  attached  the  dorje  is  slid  up  the  string,  and  so  on  for 
each  series  of  108  repetitions  till  the  tenth  time  ;  then  the  first 
bead  on  the  string  next  to  the  dorje  string  is  slid  up,  and  so  on  for 
the  four  strings  of  counters.  Usually  the  string  next  to  the  one 
on  which  is  hung  the  dorje  has  a  bell  (drilbu)  attached  to  it  ;  the 
third  has  the  magic  peg  {pitrbu)  on  it,  and  the  fourth  a  wheel 
(k'or-lo). 

/lb0b<\1UinCt){\H  "  T^e  K°ran  enJoms  prayers  five  times  a 
1T?  1  day,  and  good  Muslims  are  very  particular  in 

^  going    through    prescribed    forms    morning, 

noon,  and  evening.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be  a  matter  of  wonder 
that  the  use  of  rosaries  [called  tasbih  (praise)  and  furnished  with 
tassels,  called  shamsa]  is  common  among  Indian  Mohammedans. 
In  all  probability  they  were  common  among  Hindus  and  Budd- 
hists long  before  the  Christian  era.  Indeed,  the  Indian  name  for 
a  rosary  well  expresses  its  meaning  and  use  in  Roman  Catholic 
countries.  ...  It  has  been  calculated  that  about  90  names  and 
attributes  are  applied  to  Christ  in  the  Bible.  But  no  Romanist, 
however  ignorant  or  superstitious,  so  far  as  I  know,  attaches  any 
merit  or  efficacy  to  the  repetition  of  the  names  of  God.  Moham- 
medans reckon  99  sacred  names,  or  rather  attributes,  of  the 
Deity.  Some  consider  that  the  principal  name  Allah  must  be 
counted  separately.  The  tale  is  thus  brought  up  to  100.  The 
worshippers  of  Vishnu  adore  him  by  1,000  sacred  names,  and  the 
votaries  of  Shiva  by  1,008  names.  ...  It  is  not  unreasonable  to 
conjecture  that  the  original  invention  of  rosaries  is  due  to  India. 
They  were  as  much  the  offspring  of  necessity  as  was  the  inven- 
tion of  the  sutras,  or  brief  memorial  rules  for  the  correct  perform- 
ance of  the  complicated  ritual.  No  other  country  in  the  world 
stands  in  such  need  of   aids  to  religious  exercises.     Vaishnavas. 


278  THEORIENTALRUGBOOK 

Saivas,  Buddhists,  Jains,  and  Mohammedans  depend  upon  these 
contrivances  for  securing  the  accurate  discharge  of  their  daily 
round  of  interminable  repetitions.  The  rosary  of  the  Vaishnava 
is  made  of  the  wood  of  the  tulasi  (vulgarly  tulsi),  or  holy  basil,  a 
shrub  sacred  to  Vishnu,  and  regarded  as  a  metamorphosis  of 
Ramas,  pattern  wife  of  Slta.  This  rosary  should  consist  of  108 
smooth  beads.  That  worn  by  Saivas  consists  of  32,  or  sometimes 
64,  berries  of  the  rudraksha  tree  (Eloeocarftus).  These  beads  are 
as  rough  as  the  tulsi  beads  are  smooth,  and  are  generally  marked 
with  five  lines,  the  roughness  symbolizing,  I  suspect,  the  austerities 
connected  with  the  worship  of  Saiva,  and  the  five  lines  standing 
for  the  five  faces,  or  five  distinct  aspects,  of  the  god.  The  Mus- 
sulman tasbih  (rosary)  contains  100  beads,  which  are  generally 
made  of  date-stones,  or  of  the  sacred  earth  of  Karbala.  They  are 
used  in  repeating  the  100  names  of  God,  or  certain  words  of  the 
Kuran,  every  decade  of  beads  being  separated  by  a  tassel.  Some 
Sunnis  are  prohibited  from  employing  rosaries,  and  count  by 
means  of  the  joints  of  their  fingers.  .  .  .  High-caste  Brahmans, 
on  the  other  hand,  merely  use  their  rosaries  to  assist  them  in 
counting  up  their  daily  prayers."  * 

"  Allah  !  His  holy  will  be  done  ! 
Islam !  we  bow  before  His  throne. 

"  It  is  a  custom  of  pious  Muslims  to  employ  in  their  devotions  a 
three-stringed  chaplet,  each  string  containing  33  beads,  and  each 
bead  representing  one  of  the  '  99  beautiful  names  of  Allah  '.  .  .  . 
The  Koran  bids  them  '  celebrate  Allah  with  an  abundant  celebra- 
tion,' and  on  certain  occasions  .  .  .  the  Faithful  pass  these  99 
beads  of  the  rosary  through  their  fingers,  repeating  with  each 
name  of  God  an  ejaculation  of  praise  and  worship.  Such  an 
exercise  is  called  zzkr,  or  '  remembrance,'  and  the  rosary,  masba- 
hah,  f 


*  Sir  Monier  Monier-Williams,  "  Modern  India  and  the  Indians." 
t  Sir  Edwin  Arnold,  "  Pearls  of  the  Faith." 


LEGENDSANDMYTHSILLUSTRATED279 


The  Ninety-nine  Names  of  Allah. 


The  Merciful 

The  Compassionate 

The  King  of  Kings 

The  Holy  One 

The  Peace 

The  Faithful 

The  Help  in  Peril 

The  Mighty 

The  All-Compelling 

The  Majestic 

The  Creator 

The  Artificer 

The  Fashioner 

The  Forgiver 

The  Dominant 

The  Bestower 

The  Provider 

The  Opener 

The  All-Knower 

The  Closer 

The  Uncloser 

The  A  baser 

The  Exalter 

The  Honourer 

The  Leader  Astray 

The  All-Hearing 

The  All-Seeing 

The  Judge  of  All 

The  Equitable  (Sura  '  Of 

Jonas') 
The  Gracious  One 
He  Who  is  Aware 
The  Clement 
The  Strong 


The  Pardoner 

The  Thankful 

The  Exalted 

The  Very  Great 

The  Preserver 

The  Maintainer 

The  Reckoner 

The  Beneficent 

The  Bountiful 

The  Watchful 

The  Hearer  of  Prayer 

The  All-Comprehending 

The  Judge  of  Judges 

The  Loving 

The  All-Glorious 

The  Raiser  from  Death 

The  Witness 

The  Truth 

The  Guardian 

The  Almighty 

The  Firm 

The  Nearest  Friend 

The  All-Praiseworthy 

The  Accountant 

The  Beginner 

The  Restorer 

The  Quickener 

The  Slayer 

The  Ever-Living 

The  Self-Subsisting 

The  All-Perceiving 

The  One 

The  Eternal 


Providence 
The  All-Powerful 
The  Forewarner 
The  Fulfiller 
The  First 
The  Last 
The  Manifest 
The  Hidden 
The  All-Governing 
„  The  One  Above  Reproach 
The  Good 
The  Relenting 
The  Avenger 
The  Rewarder 
The  Ever-Indulgent 
King  of  the  Kingdom 
Lord  of  Splendid  Power 
The  Equitable  (Last  Ser- 
mon of  the  Prophet) 
The  Gatherer 
The  All-Sufficing 
The  Sufficer 
The  Provider 
The  Withholder 
The  Propitious 
The  Harmful 
The  Light 
The  Guide 
Eternal  in  the  Past 
Eternal  in  the  Future 
The  Inheritor 
The  Unerring 
The  Patient 


"  The  Ceremony  of  the  Rosary  is  a  ceremony  practised  among 
Mohammedans  on  special  occasions,  called  in  the  Arabic,  Sobhat, 
and  usually  performed  on  the  night  succeeding  a  burial.  The 
soul  is  then  supposed  to  remain  in  the  body,  after  which  it  departs 
to  Hades,  there  to  await  its  final  doom.  The  ceremony  is  thus 
described  : 

"  At  night,  Ji&ts,  sometimes  as  many  as  50  assemble,  and  one 
brings  a  rosary  of  1,000  beads,  each  as   large  as  a  pigeon's  eggw 


28o  THE     ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

They  begin  with  the  67th  chapter  of  the  Koran,  then  say  three 
times,  '  God  is  one,'  then  recite  the  last  chapter  but  one  and  the 
first,  and  then  say  three  times,  '  Oh  God,  favour  the  most  excellent 
and  most  happy  of  thy  creatures,  our  Lord  Mohammed,  and  his 
family  and  companions  and  preserve  them.'  To  this  they  add, 
'  All  who  commemorate  Thee  are  the  mindful  and  those  who 
omit  commemorating  Thee  are  the  negligent.'  They  next  repeat 
3,000  times  '  There  is  no  God  but  God,'  one  holding  the  rosary 
and  counting  each  repetition.  After  each  1,000  ,  they  sometimes 
rest  and  take  coffee,  then  100  times,  '  (I  extol)  the  perfection  of 
God  with  His  praise.'  Then  the  same  number  of  times,  '  I  beg 
forgiveness  of  God,  the  great,'  after  which  50  times,  '  The  perfec- 
tion of  the  Lord,  the  Eternal,'  then  '  The  perfection  of  the  Lord, 
the  Lord  of  Might,'  etc.  Two  or  three  then  recite  three  or  four 
more  verses.  This  done,  one  asks  his  companions,  '  Have  ye 
transferred  (the  merit  of)  what  ye  have  recited  to  the  soul  of  the 
deceased?  '  They  reply,  '  We  have,'  and  add,  '  Peace  be  on  the 
apostle.'  This  concludes  the  ceremony,  which  in  the  houses  of 
the  rich  is  repeated  the  second  and  third  night."  * 

"  The  full  Mohammedan  rosary,  called  by  them  Tusbeek,  con- 
sists of  99  beads,  with  one  chief  bead  which  they  call  the  Iman, 
the  whole  number  corresponding  with  the  100  names  of  God.  It 
is  divided  into  three  equal  parts,  each  consisting  of  33  beads.  The 
divisions  are  marked  sometimes  with  a  stone  or  bead  of  different 
shape,  sometimes  by  one  or  more  tassels,  called  shiimsehs,  which, 
made  of  gold  thread  and  silk  of  divers  colours,  have  a  brilliant  and 
pleasing  effect.  .  .  .  Among  the  Hindus  and  Buddhists  we  see 
the  rosary  confined  to  a  few  simple  substances,  chiefly  seeds, 
grains,  coral,  and  other  natural  products,  and  seldom,  at  least 
among  the  ordinary  worshippers,  assuming  an  ornamental  appear- 
ance. Among  the  Mohammedans  the  case  is  different:  all  the 
rosaries  they  use  are  made  of  elegant  and  ornamental  materials, 
....  agate,  cornelian,  onyx,  even  emeralds,  f 


*  McClintock  and  Strong,  "  Cyclopedia  of  Biblical,  Theological, 
and  Ecclesiastical  Literature." 

f  William  Tayler,  Journal  of  Society  of   Arts  "  The  Rosary  in 
India," 


HUG-PLATE  XL 


TURKISH  RUG 


MUG-PLATE  XL 


TURKISH  RUG 

Oriental  Expert's  Description 

'  L/    HIS  interesting  rug  was  woven  on  the  pri- 
vate   looms    belonging  to  the  Sultan  in 
Constantinople. " 

S.  S.  Costikyan. 


R.UG-PLA1  E  XL 


LEGENDS     AND     MYTHS    ILLUSTRATED    281 

XTbC  IROtHHH  "  The  rosary  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful, 

ClthOliC  TROSarV)    most  pfofitable,  and    most  popular  of  all 

devotions.  It  was  revealed  to  St.  Dominic 
by  the  divine  Mother  herself,  about  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  .  .  .  The  rosary,  when  practised  in  the  most  perfect  man- 
ner, consists  of  two  distinct  modes  of  prayer  joined  together  in  one 
exercise.  It  is  a  combination  of  mental  prayer,  or  meditation,  with 
vocal  prayer. 

"  The  meditation  is  made  by  the  consideration  of  the  most  memo- 
rable and  touching  '  mysteries  '  or  events  in  the  life,  passion,  and 
victory  of  Jesus  Christ,  our  Redeemer.  The  vocal  prayer  consists 
of  the  recitation  on  the  beads  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Hail  Mary, 
and  the  Gloria  Patri,  or  Doxology.  The  mysteries  to  be  meditated 
are  1 5  in  number  and  divided  into  three  parts,  which  are  named 
the  five  joyful,  the  five  sorrowful,  and  the  five  glorious  mysteries 

"  The  rosary  beads  on  which  the  vocal  prayers  are  recited  are 
also  divided  in  a  corresponding  manner  into  three  parts,  and  each 
part  into  five  decades  (or  tens),  each  decade  consisting  of  one  bead 
for  the  Pater  and  ten  for  the  Aves.  The  Gloria  at  the  end  of  every 
decade  is  recited  on  the  same  bead  as  the  Pater,  which  begins  the 
decade  that  follows. 

"The  chaplet,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  '  the  rosary  of  five 
decades,'  constitutes  only  a  third  part  of  the  full  rosary,  and  is  the 
common  form  in  which  the  beads  are  made  and  used  at  the 
present  day,  it  not  being  usual  to  recite  more  than  one  part  at  a 
time. 

"  The  indulgences  attached  to  the  recitation  of  the  rosary  are  of 
two  kinds,  viz.,  the  ordinary  indulgences  and  those  (so-called)  of 
St.  Bridget.  Among  these  indulgences  the  principal  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  (1)  Those  who  are  accustomed  to  recite  weekly  the  chap- 
let,  or  rosary,  of  five  decades,  blessed  in  the  ordinary  manner,  gain 
an  indulgence  of  100  days  each  time.  (2)  If  the  rosary  has  been 
blessed  by  a  priest  authorised  to  give  the  Bridgetine  indulgences 
on  gains  for  every  time  he  recites  the  five  decades  and  indulgence 
of  100  days  for  each  bead.  The  rosaries  blessed  during  the  mission 
receive  those  as  well  as  the  ordinary  indulgences. 

"  N.  B.— Those  who  are  not  capable  of  meditating  the  mysteries 


282  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

may  gain  the  above  indulgence  by  simply  saying  their  beads  with 
piety.  .  .  . 

"  Method  of  Saying  the  Rosary  with  the  Mysteries. — Taking 
your  beads  in  your  right  hand  by  the  medal,  or  cross,  bless  your- 
self and  say,  '  In  the  name  of  the  Father,'  etc.  Then  recite,  by 
way  of  introduction,  the  creed,  one  Pater,  three  Aves,  and  one 
Gloria,  after  which  you  go  on  with  the  meditation  of  the  mysteries 
and  the  recitation  of  the  decades."  * 

"  i.  A  Chaplet  of  Beads. — 2.  A  Devotion. — This  devotion  is 
said  to  have  been  instituted  by  St.  Dominic,  after  having  had  a 
special  revelation  from  the  Blessed  Virgin,  in  the  year  1206.  It 
consists  of  15  Pater  Nosters  and  .Glorias,  and  150  Ave  Marias 
divided  into  three  parts.  Each  part  contains  five  decades ;  a 
decade  consists  of  one  Pater  Noster,  ten  Ave  Marias,  and  one 
Gloria  Patri.  To  each  of  these  decades  is  assigned  for  meditation 
one  of  the  principal  events  in  the  life  of  our  Lord,  or  of  His 
Blessed  Mother,  five  joyful,  five  sorrowful,  and  five  glorious  mys- 
teries." t 

"  The  rosary  was  first  used  by  the  Dominican  Monks,  though  it 
is  not  certain  that  it  was  introduced  by  St.  Dominic  himself.  As 
it  is  used  by  both  the  Mohammedans  and  the  Brahmins,  it  is 
generally  believed  to  have  been  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Cru- 
saders."! 


*  St.  Alphonsus  Liguori,  "The  Holy  Rosary." 
t  Rev.  F.   G.  Lee,   "  Glossary  of   Liturgical  and   Ecclesiastical 
Terms." 

\  Philip  Schaff,  "  Encyclopedia  and  Dictionary.     Religions." 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


CALLIGRAPHY   USED   IN   ORNAMENTATION   OF   RUGS 

"  Words  set  to  music  have  a  wondrous  power  when  aided  by 
inspiration  and  the  magic  of  fine  writing." 

SINCE  the  Saracenic  conquest  Arabic  characters 
have  been  used  by  the  scholars  and  scribes  of  Persia, 
and  such  have  figured  largely  in  the  decoration  of 
pottery  and  weaving.  It  would  indeed  take  the 
learning   of  a   sage  to  grasp  even  a   faint   idea  of  the 

various  ways 
that  the  alpha- 
bets of  the 
world  have  figu- 
red i  n  design. 
Ideographs, 
hieroglyphs  and 
signs  innumer- 
able defy  the 
most  careful 
study,  so  modi- 
fied and  change 
are  even  the 
most  readily 
understood 
forms,  by  accents,  positions,  and  abbreviations.     There 


TIHETAN    PRAYER. 


284  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

are  signs  of  tone  and  signs  of  punctuation  ;  there  are 
vowel  strokes  and  classification  of  consonants  ;  there 
are  signs  to  represent  inarticulate  sounds,  and  laws  of 
succession.  In  fact  there  is  enough  in  the  mere  study 
of  alphabets  to  occupy  an  ordinary  lifetime,  for  in 
them  all  sorts  of  traceries  and  interlaced  knots  and 
ornaments  have  found  their  origin.  Rude  scratches 
accompanying  the  patterns  used  by  primitive  and 
illiterate  peoples  have  proved  to  be  explanatory 
phrases,  which,  though  untranslatable,  add  greatly  to 
the  value  of  fabrics  which  they  decorate. 

Calligraphy,  however,  is  a  fine  art ;  and  as  applied 
to  the  weaver's  craft  it  accomplishes  a  double  purpose  : 
it  serves  as  ornamentation,  and  at  the  same  time 
suggests  the  intellectual  and  artistic  qualities  which 
have  always  distinguished  the  people  of  Persia. 

Calligraphy,  "  the  golden  profession,"  has  always 
been  patronized  by  royalty,  and  many  and  various 
accounts  are  treasured  of  the  appreciation  bestowed 
on  him  who  could  practise  his  art  most  successfully. 
The  writer  of  the  "  Life  of  Shah  Jehan  "  had  his 
mouth  stuffed  full  of  pearls  as  a  reward,  besides  his 
regular  fee.  Ever  and  always  the  scribe  of  the  Orient 
has  been  and  is  honoured.  His  ink-box,  horn,  or  case, 
of  whatever  shape  it  is,  always  bears  the  marks  of  the 
highest  decorative  art  of  the  period.  From  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  China  Sea,  with  pens  of  metal 
and  with  brushes  of  finest  hair,  the  art  of  writing- 
holds  sway  over  the  appreciative  Oriental.  Rever- 
ence for  the  written  character  is  taught  in  the  far 
East,  where  even  printed  matter  is  burned  and  not 
thrown  about  carelessly. 


RUG-PLATE  XLI 


HEREZ  RUG 


M  UG-FLA  TE  XLI 


HEREZ  BUG 
Authenticated  by  S.  S.  Costikyan 

Author's  Description 

T  N  this  rug  is  shotcn  the  shaded  background 
-*■  which  is  so  strony  a  feature  in  the  old 
Herez  rugs,  and  which  appears  often  in 
modern  Gorevan  rugs  and  other  iveavings  of 
the  district. 


RUG-PLATE   XLI 


CALLIGRAPHY    IN   ORNAMENTATION  2S5 

What  wonder,  then,  that  the  choicest  fabrics  of  the 
loom  should  receive,  as  the  most  finished  decoration, 
that  which  was  so  highly  honoured  and  practised  as  a 
fine  art  ? 

To  the  untrained  eye  of  the  Occidental  student  the 
characters  traced  in  rugs  are  not  always  apparent. 
Sometimes  over  the  entire  background  the  word 
"  Allah  "  is  traced  in  green  wools  between  the 
patterns,  green  being  the  sacred  colour  of  the  Mo- 
hammedans.    Words  expressing  the  humility  of  the 


-^ 


INSCRIPTIONS,    NAME   AND   DATE   WOVEN    IN    RUG. 

weaver  are  often  found  woven  most  dextrously  into 
rugs,  revealing  the  habit  so  customary  among  Orien- 
tals, of  speaking  disparagingly  of  their  own  ability 
and  possessions,  trusting  themselves  to  the  considera- 
tion of  the  listener,  who  is  supposed  to  show  his 
appreciation  in  inverse  ratio  to  that  which  the  maker 
and  owner  professes. 

Dates    and     names    are    sometimes    found    written 

y  r  r  °  i  v  a  ■  1  ♦ 

ARABIC    NUMERALS    FOUND   IN    RUGS. 

plainly  or  obscurely  in  the  upper  ends  of  rugs.  In 
order  to  decipher   such  writing   one   should  carefully 


2S6 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


count  the  stitches  or  knots  it  has  required  to  make 
them,  and  should  depend  upon  this  accurate  analysis 
to  determine  the  cursive  forms  of  the  letters.  Only 
in  this  way  can  a  safe  estimate  be  made  of  what 
the  characters  really  are.  When  correctly  copied, 
any  Oriental  scholar  sufficiently  versed  in  the  language 
will  be  able  to  translate  them.  Unless  each  little 
point  be  carefully  observed,  however,  the  meaning 
will  not  be  apparent,  as  each  one  has  special  signifi- 
cance and  bears  upon  the  whole.  The  Arabic  num- 
erals are  not  altogether  unlike  those  to  which  we  are 
accustomed,  and  in  an  old  legend  they  are  traced 
back  to  the  famous  signet  of  Solomon. 

SIGNET   OF    SOLOMON,    MYTHICAL   ORIGIN    OF    NUMBERS. 

In  very  old  embroideries  these  rectilinear  figures 
are  occasionally  found  forming  borders,  but  no  corrob- 
orative authority  can  be  found  for  the  legendary 
statement.  It  is  a  most  interesting  matter  to  investi- 
gate, and  it  is  to  be  hoped' that  some  one  able  to  do 
so  will  bring  forward  satisfactory  testimony  which 
shall  establish  as  fact  that  which  now  must  be  classed 
as  speculation. 

Silk  rugs  bearing  inscriptions  in  cartouches  arranged 
as  border  designs  around  elaborately  decorated  field 
patterns  have  been  made  as  dowry  rugs  for  princesses, 
and  are  treasured  as  choice  possessions  by  their  present 
owners.  Such  are  sometimes  most  elaborately  worked 
in  silk  upon  backgrounds  of  gold   and  silver,  which  as 


CALLIGRAPHY    IN   ORNAMENTATION    287 

woof  upon  a  fine  warp  make  a  smooth  metallic  surface 
for  ornamentation  in  relief. 

Sentences  from  the  Koran  or  quotations  from  the 
poems  of  famous  writers  are  used  in  calligraphic  dec- 
orations. Occasionally  some  adulatory  opinion  finds 
expression,  in  an  inconspicuous  place,  upon  a  rug 
ornamented  in  the  main  with  writing  held  in  cartouche 
forms. 

Attempts  have  been  made  in  modern  rugs  to  copy 
in  a  crude  and  deceptive  way  the  beautiful  rugs  of 
past  centuries.  Rudely  drawn  cursive  characters 
easily  deceive  those  who  know  nothing  of  Arabic 
writing,  and  such  rugs  are  very  beautiful  in  them- 
selves, and  are  well  made  and  attractive  in  every  way. 
They  should  not,  however,  be  sold  or  bought  as 
antiques,  or  as  rugs  made  for  distinguished  individuals 
in  the  Orient.  In  strong  contrast  to  many  that  arouse 
question  are  the  few  that  stand  as  veritable  and 
authenticated  treasures  in  many  Occidental  homes 
to-day. 

Such,  for  example,  is  a  most  wonderfully  woven 
and  beautiful  silk  rug  in  which  upon  a  background  of 
silver  the  following  sentences  are  held  within  car- 
touches: 

The  Dowry-Rug  for  our  Princess  Marazade, 

by  the 
Master-Weaver  Abdallah  Ebn  Salam. 

(Date  Hajiro  1221,  or  1781  a.  d.) 

"  I  direct  my  face  unto  Him  who  hath  created  the  heavens  and 
-the  earth." 


28S  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

"  Verily  the  true  religion  in  the  light  of  God  is  Islam  :  God  hath 
borne  witness  that  there  is  no  God  but  He." 

"  He  is  a  God  in  heaven  and  in  earth  :  He  knoweth  what  ye 
keep  secret  and  what  ye  publish,  and  knoweth  what  ye  deserve." 

"  Who  maketh  the  Angels  His  messengers,  furnished  with  two 
and  three  and  four  pairs  of  wings." 

"  Fear  that  which  is  before  you  and  that  which  is  behind  you." 

"  His  commandment,  when  He  willeth  a  thing,  is  only  that  He 
saith  unto  it,  Be :  and  it  is." 

"  Give  alms  of  that  which  God  hath  bestowed  on  you." 

"  A  blessed  book  have  we  sent  down  unto  thee,  O  Mohammed." 

"  Attentively  meditate  on  the  signs  thereof,  that  men  of  under- 
standing may  be  warned." 

"  Praise  be  unto  Him  in  whose  hand  is  the  Kingdom  of  all 
things." 

"  He  causeth  the  night  to  succeed  the  day,  and  He  causeth  the 
day  to  succeed  the  night,  and  He  obligeth  the  sun  and  the  moon 
to  perform  their  services,  each  of  them  hasteneth  to  an  appointed 
period." 

"  This  is  what  ye  are  promised  at  the  day  of  account.  This 
is  our  provision  which  shall  not  fail." 

"  And  thou  shalt  see  the  angels  going  in  procession  around  the 
throne,  celebrating  the  praises  of  their  Lord." 

"  And  the  earth  shall  shine  by  the  light  of  its  Lord,  and  the 
book  shall  be  laid  open,  and  the  prophets  and  the  martyrs  shall  be 
brought  as  witnesses." 

"  It  is  God  who  hath  appointed  the  night  for  you  to  take  your 
rest  therein,  and  the  day  to  give  you  light." 

"  The  last  hour  will  surely  come  :  there  is  no  doubt  thereof 
but  the  greater  part  of  men  believe  it  not." 

"  Woe  be  to  the  idolaters  who  give  not  the  appointed  alms  and 
believe  not  in  the  life  to  come." 

"  God  maketh  what  addition  he  pleaseth  unto  his  creatures,  for 
God  is  almighty." 


Ii  UG-FLA  TE  XLII 


HAM  AD  AN  RUG 


BUG-PLATE  XLII 


HAM  AD  AN  RUG 
Authenticated  by  S.  S.  Costikyan 


RUG-PLATE   XLH 


CALLIGRAPHY    IN   ORNAMENTATION  2S9 

"  He  placed  in  the  earth  mountains  firmly  rooted,  rising  above 
the  sea,  and  he  blessed  it,  and  provided  therein  the  food  of  the 
creatures." 

"  Say  unto  those  who  believe  not,  Ye  shall  be  overcome,  and 
thrown  together  into  hell  :  and  an  unhappy  couch  shall  it  be." 

"  And  if  a  malicious  suggestion  be  offered  unto  thee  from 
Satan,  have  recourse  unto  God,  for  it  is  He  who  heareth  and 
knovveth." 

"  On  the  day  of  resurrection  thou  shalt  see  the  faces  of  those 
who  have  uttered  lies  concerning  God,  become  black." 

"  When  the  one  sole  God  is  mentioned,  the  hearts  of  those 
who  believe  not  in  the  life  to  come  shrink  with  horror." 

"  God  taketh  unto  Himself  the  souls  of  men  at  the  time  of  their 
death,  and  those  which  die  not  He  also  taketh  in  their  sleep." 

"  Who  is  more  unjust  than  he  who  uttereth  a  lie  concerning 
God,  and  denieth  the  truth  when  it  cometh  unto  him  ?  " 

"Verily,  I  fear,  if  I  be  disobedient  unto  my  Lord,  the  punish- 
ment of  the  great  day." 

"  It  is  He  who  hath  created  you  of  clay  and  then  decreed  the 
term  of  your  lives:  and  the  prefixed  term  is  with  him." 

Another  notable  carpet  has  been  thus  described. 

"This  rug  was  made  in  the  year  Arabi  (Mohammedan  era) 
1244,  for  Fetali  Shah,  who  bequested  it  to  his  grandson, 
Mehemmed  Shah.  It  passed  from  him  to  Nasreddin  Shah,  the 
present  ruler,  who  gave  it  to  the  Crown  Prince,  Mouzataffareddin 
Bey,  from  whom  it  was  secured  through  the  court  chamberlain. 
The  maker  of  the  piece  was  Rejeb,  the  most  renowned  artist  of 
his  time,  who,  it  is  said,  with  five  assistants,  devoted  more  than 
three  years  to  the  execution  of  this  work  of  art.  He  has  signed  his 
name  on  the  rug,  as  can  be   seen  on  the  upper  right-hand  corner. 

The  writer  of  the  poetry  was  the  Laureate  of  his  time,  and  has 
been  considered  until  this  day  as  the  nation's  poet.  As  the  pro- 
noun  representing   the    third    person    in    the    singular    has    not 


29o  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

separate  words  in  the  Persian  for  the  feminine  or  masculine,  but 
one  word  for  both,  and  that  very  seldom  used  (as  the  verb 
changes  its  form  according  to  its  person),  it  is  difficult  to  say- 
positively  whether  these  words  were  meant  to  have  been  uttered 
by  the  Shah  to  his  Queen,  or  vice  versa.  There  is  an  opinion, 
however,  that  they  were  uttered  by  the  Queen  to  her  Consort." 


POEM  UPON  BORDERS 

He,  my  beautiful  love,  I  am  with  him, 
And  the  fair  world  is  flooded  with  light, 

In  the  warmth  of  my  love  the  earth  sparkles, 
And  bright  as  the  sun  is  the  night. 

All  Paradise-born  are  the  breezes, — ah,  yes  ! 

The  zephyrs  blow  fair  from  the  south  ! 
But  sweeter  than  heaven-grown  Laddehn  * 

Is  the  delicate,  perfumed  breath  of  his  mouth. 

Thou  light  of  my  life,  all  my  heart's  adoration 

I  freely  bestow  upon  thee  ! 
As  the  eyes  in  my  head,  or  my  soul  that  is  Allah's, 

So  art  thou  precious  to  me  ! 

I  am  thy  servant  and  vassal  most  faithful, 

A  slave  to  thy  slightest  behest ; 
From  the  day  that  I  first  saw  thy  face, 

Has  my  great  love  tormented  my  breast. 

When  thou  art  away,  all  the  grim,  grey  world 
Seems  to  moulder  and  vanish,  I  say; 

For  to  her  who  loveth  and  is  not  loved  in  return, 
There  's  no  night  and  no  day. 


*  Laddehn  is  a  Persian  flower  of  a  rare  fragrance  and  is  one  of 
the  form  and  beauty  of  the  Egyptian  lotus. 


CALLIGRAPHY    IN   ORNAMENTATION  291 

Dear  heart,  my  beloved  !    upon  me,  I  pray, 
Let  the  light  of  thy  rare  smile  be  spent  ; 

Let  but  a  beggar's  poor  share  of  thy  love 
Be  mine,  dear,  and  I  am  content. 

For  to  her  who  loveth  as  madly  as  I 

There  can  be  no  peace  in  flight ; 
For  wheresoever  she  goeth,  there  will  his  image  be, 

In  the  day  and  the  night. 

My  heart  is  thy  nestling;  it  I  have  made 

An  abiding-place  for  thy  rest, 
While  jealous  thousands  envy  me  sore 

For  the  great  love  for  thee  in  my  breast ! 

"  In  considering  the  marvellous  fabric  which  was  woven  by  the 
renowned  Rejeb  in  the  early  years  of  the  present  century,  one  is 
somewhat  confused  as  to  the  method  of  expressing  the  delight  and 
satisfaction  which  it  gives.  (That  a  great  artist  has  revealed  his 
genius  to  us  is  manifest  ;  that  his  work  was  dedicated  to  the  ruling 
Shah  of  Persia  is  most  fitting ;  and  that  the  Poet  Laureate  of  the 
time  composed,  for  the  borders  that  frame  this  panel  of  beauty,  a 
love-song  from  the  Queen  to  her  Consort,  is  an  evidence  of  the 
significant  place  which  it  held  in  the  critical  judgment  of  the 
Court  :  but  when  these  things  are  fully  noted  we  still  have  the 
blended  dream  of  form  and  colour  which  well-nigh  baffles  analy- 
sis and  characterization.) 

"  The  first  flush  of  feeling  upon  an  inspection  of  this  royal  weave 
attests  the  thoroughly  joyous  motive  which  was  in  the  spirit  of  the 
weaver  when  he  set  his  task  before  him.  The  design  is  purely 
floral  and  arabesque,  with  medallions  carrying  the  sacred  scarab, — 
the  widely-known  Eastern  symbol  of  immortality.  There  is  no 
pathetic  touch  anywhere  ;  no  intimation  of  suffering  or  of  battle. 
We  have  no  lion  dragging  down  a  stag, — the  revelation  of  the 
fiery  sun  putting  out  the  moon  with  the  pallor  of  death.  Here 
only  are  suggestions  of  loveliness  and  hope  upon  grounds  of  azure. 
It  was  appropriate  that  simply  the  flowering  fields  and  the  shim- 


292  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

mering  sky  should  surrender  their  secrets  of  colour  and  form  when 
a  sonnet  from  a  Queen's  heart  was  to  be  thrown  into  the  most 
precious  warp  and  woof.  (I  do  not  question  that  the  original 
order  for  this  fabric  came  from  the  Queen,  who  sought  the  highest 
gifts  in  the  realm  to  do  for  her  what  she  was  unable  to  do  for 
herself.)  An  Oriental  maiden  will  set  her  frame  for  a  rug  to  be 
presented  to  her  betrothed  on  the  marriage-day,  and  will  allow 
years  for  the  labour.  Such  products  of  patient  skill  become  heir- 
looms in  the  treasuries  of  the  East.  We  are  not  surprised  to 
learn,  in  the  history  of  this  costly  example,  that  Rejeb,  with  five 
assistants,  held  it  upon  his  loom  for  more  than  three  years.  This 
fairly  corresponds  to  the  fineness  of  the  work.  There  are  nearly 
500  hand-knots  to  the  square  inch.  The  designs  are  graduated 
from  a  rich  centre  to  borders  of  rare  delicacy. 

"  The  sapphire  medallion  holds  the  outline  of  a  pair  of  scarabs, 
placed  head  to  head,  with  winged  members.  Their  turquoise 
colour  is  contrasted  by  aground  of  bronze " brown.  The  frame  of 
these  figures  is  a  leaf  yellow,  which  is  in  turn  surrounded  by  a 
wreath  of  flowers.  The  pendants  at  each  end  of  the  dark-blue 
medallion  repeat  in  sharp  accent  of  black  the  scarabs,  and  termi- 
nate upon  wandering  arabesques  that  interlace  the  entire  body  of 
the  large  panel.  This  is  of  pale  blue,  like  a  faintly  misted  sky 
through  which  the  light  softly  shines.  There  is  a  variation  in  this 
blue,  which  is  barred  in  a  charming  fashion,  shifting  as  the  fabric 
is  moved.  The  flowers  that  wave  over  the  background  are  pinks, 
wild  roses,  and  the  lotus.  At  each  side  of  the  central  medallion 
are  two  long  lotus  buds  joined  tip  to  tip,  holding  upon  a  tone  of 
old  ivory  a  beautiful  sketch  of  leaves  and  blossoms. 

"  The  borders  of  the  rug  are  fascinating.  The  series  on  the 
inside  of  the  broad  band  of  Egyptian  red  which  carries  the  in- 
scription is  repeated  on  the  outside  ;  this  imparts  harmony  of  effect. 
These  lines  are  inlaid  with  dainty  flowers  so  exquisitely  wrought  as 
to  more  than  rival  the  perfection  of  jewelled  mosaics.  The  text  of 
the  poem  is  a  faithful  reproduction  of  Persian  characters,  punctu- 
ated by  brilliant  silver  points  skilfully  inwoven, 

"  Whether  one  considers  this  Oriental  joy  from  the  standpoint 
of  design  or  of  colour,  from  the  suggestions  of  symbolism  or  pure 


HUG-PLATE  XLIII 


GOREVAN  RUG 


B  UG-PLA  TE  XLIII 


GOREVAN  RUG 


Oriental  Expert's  Description 


"     /f  VERY  finely  wrought  specimen  of  Gore- 
-"     van  weave.'" 

S.  S.  Costikyan. 


RUG-PLATE  XLIII 


CALLIGRAPHY    IN   ORNAMENTATION   293 

art,  there  Is  in  it  a  source  of  perpetual  pleasure   from  which  the 
owner  may  be  constantly  refreshed." 

XTbc  UUObra  Ot       The    Tu8hra  aPPears  very  univer- 
~KX  ...  sally  in   Turkish   decoration    and    is 

^  ^  often  erroneously  described  as  beinc 
the  name  of  Allah,  so  apt  is  the  impatient  student  to 
use  his  fragment  of  information  to  force  meaning  into 
patterns.  The  Tughra  appears  on  coins  and  em- 
broideries, and  wherever  as  Sultan's  emblem  it  will 
add  value  and  interest.     The  sign   is  thus  explained : 

"  The  Tughra  is  said  to  have  originated  in  this  way.  Sultan 
Murad  I  (1359-89)  entered  into  a  treaty  with  the  Ragusans;  but 
when  the  document  was  brought  for  his  signature,  he,  being 
unable  to  write,  wetted  his  open  hand  with  ink  and  pressed  it  on 
the  paper.  The  first,  second,  and  third  fingers  were  together, 
but  the  thumb  and  fourth  finger  were  apart.  Within  the  mark 
thus  formed  the  scribes  wrote  the  names  of  Murad  and  his  father, 
the  little  Khan,  and  the  "  Victor  ever."  The  Tughra  as  we  now 
have  it  is  the  result  of  this  ;  the  three  long  upright  lines  represent 
Murad's  three  middle  fingers,  the  rounded  lines  at  the  left  side 
are  his  bent  thumb,  and  the  straight  ones  at  the  right  his  little 
finger. 

The  Tughra  contains  the  name  of  the  ruling  Sultan  and  his 
father,  together  with  the  word  '  Khan '  and  '  El  Muzaffar- 
Daima  '  or  '  victor  ever'.  " 


TUGHRA   OF   ABD-UL-AZIZ. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

VITALITY   IN   PRIMITIVE   DESIGNS 

A  vast  number  of  influences  have  swept  from  Asia, 
the  mother  country  of  the  world,  to  the  uttermost 
limits  of  the  earth,  which  may  be  directly  traced 
to  ancient  beliefs,  and  in  modern  design  there 
seems  to  be  a  constant  recurrence  to  type.  The 
weaver's  art  is  so  susceptible  to  human  thought 
that  in  it  we  find  more  absolute  allegiance  to 
sentiment  than  in  the  greater  arts  which  require 
premeditation  and  preparation.  Not  that  the  mod- 
ern weaver  necessarily  carries  within  himself  any 
knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  patterns  he  uses  ;  but  if 
left  to  himself,  and  told  not  to  try  to  make  anything 
new  and  startling,  but  to  work  an  old-fashioned  pat- 
tern, he  will  almost  invariably  revert  to  some  inherited 
family  tradition,  and,  with  apologies  for  its  simplicity, 
hand  over  something  of  inestimable  value  to  the 
student  of  folk-lore.  After  another  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury there  will  be  no  such  opportunity  afforded  those 
who  desire  to  make  the  present  explain  the  past. 
Those  of  the  older  generation  in  the  Orient  who  still 
cherish  the  habits  and  customs  of  their  youth  will 
have  passed  away.  Commercialism  will  have  done  a 
more  complete  work  ;  tents  will  have  been  folded,  and 
railroads   will    have   chased    the    nomads    from    their 


R  UG-PLA  TE  XLI V 


PERSIAN  SILK  PANEL 


It  UG-PLA TE  XLIV 


PERSIAN  SILK  PANEL 

Loaned  by  the  Tiffany  Studios 

TTf  HAT  ivill  this  Persian  panel  old, 
'  *        With  ivarp  of  silk  and  ivoof  of  gold, 
Reveal  to  my  delighted  eyes, 
Beyond  the  moment's  glad  surprise  % 

The  colours,  so  supremely  rare, 
Are  passing  rich  beyond  compare  ; 
Blending  in  blue  and  rose  and  green, 
Each  lends  to  each  an  added  sheen. 

The  shadows  chase  the  sunlit  space, 
In  glorious  phantasy  of  grace 
They  leap  from  bud  and  leaf  and  flower, 
Then  fall  o'er  all  in  gentle  shower 

Until,  when  suddenly  a  ray 
Of  purest  sunshine  drives  away 
All  mist  and  shadows  from  the  field, 
The  matchless  pattern  stands  revealed! 


RUG-PLATE   XLIV 


VITALITY    IN    PRIMITIVE    DESIGNS    295 

retreats.  Occidental  patterns  will  be  furnished  to 
even  a  greater  extent  than  they  now  are,  and  the 
modern  rug  will  without  doubt  become  a  good  floor- 
covering,  but  no  longer  a  thing  of  sentiment.  While 
still  antique  rugs  are  to  be  found,  analytical  study  of 
them  avails  to  prove  many  a  disputed  point  and  to 
verify  vast  numbers  of  speculations. 

In  the  study  of  patterns  we  must  constantly  remem- 
ber that  when  first  they  were  invented  those  who 
made  them  believed  in  them.  The  lotus  was  painted 
and  woven  because  it  had  a  vital  significance.  The 
dragon  portrayed  in  art  was  a  veritable  force,  and  the 
rosary  was  the  outward  sign  of  inward  reverence.  So 
with  other  forms  none  the  less  significant.  Trace  any 
one  of  them  back  through  the  years,  and  it  may  easily 
be  proved  that  talismanic  or  magic  power  was  attached 

to  it. 

The  Celts  and  Norsemen,  in  their  interlaced  orna- 
ments, have  in  their  far  northern  homes  used  the  ends 
of  knots  which  were  tied  in  the  Orient,  while  Buddhism 
in  the  Far  East  has  twisted  into  ribbons  of  fate  other 
ends  of  the  great  world  knots  tied  where  the  human 
race  had  its  birth  in  central  Asia.  In  the  region  be- 
tween the  Black  and  Caspian  seas  we  find  in  rug  pat- 
terns the  knot  of  destiny  scattered  about  as  isolated 
pattern.  As  one  of  the  emblems  of  Buddha  it  is  used 
as  ornament  throughout  China  and  Japan  to-day.  Its 
significance  is  explained  in  various  ways,  but  careful 
examination  of  its  history  and  migration  does  not 
seem  as  yet  to  have  interested  the  great  students  of 
the  world.  The  Persian  knot  of  destiny,  so  attrac- 
tively introduced  by  Vedder  to  the  lovers  of  the  Ru- 


296  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

baiyat,  differs  in  its  artistic  rendering  from  the  simple 
Buddhist  knot  most  often  seen  in  Mongolian  art.  In 
Samarkand  and  Chinese  rugs  the  knot  of  destiny  is 
often  found  in  border  designs,  and  in  Shiraz  and 
Kirman  rugs  it  partakes  of  a  floral  character  and  is 
not  always  accurately  carried  out.  In  Caucasian 
fabrics  it  is  seen  to  the  best  advantage,  and  a  Soumac 
rug  is  rarely  found  without  carrying  a  knot  some- 
where as  a  talismanic  design. 

We  must  always  remember  that  most  designs  have 
had  two  periods  :  the  first  when  natural  objects  were 
simply  copied,  the  second  when  metaphysical  thought 
about  the  design,  of  however  simple  a  character,  has 
changed  the  natural  into  the  conventional.  To  the 
twisting  of  the  body  of  a  serpent  have  been  traced 
many  of  the  early  knot  forms  of  Asia  and  Europe. 
Mohammedan  arabesques  partake  of  the  double  nature 
claimed  by  such  ornamentation  as  may  be  traced 
not  only  to  naturalistic  representations  but  to  well 
developed  thought  about  them  which  has  resulted  in 
very  accurate  and  methodic  conventionalization. 

So  modern  and  interesting  a  development  as  the 
bow-knot  in  modern  decoration  leads  the  thought 
back  through  the  French  use  of  it  to  the  Egyptian 
girdle  of  Isis,  and  through  that  to  the  AnkJi,  the  key 
of  life  and  emblem  of  immortality.  This  ornament, 
though  undoubtedly  phallic  in  meaning,  has  given  rise 
to  various  renderings  of  the  looped  ribbon ;  and 
whether  or  not  it  antedated  the  Buddhist  temple  orna- 
ment and  other  knotted  bands  in  Chinese  and  Japan- 
ese art,  it  has  been  used  through  so  many  centuries 
that  it  is  accepted  as  significant.     The  fillet,  elsewhere 


B 


>:<:■>>:<:  >;<-3 


A.    BUDDHIST    KNOT    OF    DESTINY,     B.     BUDDHIST    TEMPLE    OR 

NAMENTS,    C.    "ANKH",   THE  EGYPTIAN   KEY-OF-LIFE,     D.   GIRDLE 

OF    ISIS    E.   CELTIC    KNOT    OF    DESTINY    F.    KNOT    DESIGNS   IN 

SC  VNDINAVIAN    WEAVING 


VITALITY    IN    PRIMITIVE    DESIGNS    297 

described,  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  bow-knot  ;  the 
two  loops  and  two  ends,  extending  beyond  the  object 
they  encircle,  enhance  its  beauty  and  power. 

One  of  the  lotus  forms  which  has  given  rise  to  a 
desiVn  similar  to  the  Ankh  is  sometimes  confounded 
with  it.  Dr.  Petrie  describes  the  ornament  as  "  two 
lotus  flowers  tied  together  by  the  stalks."  This  emi- 
nent thinker  and  writer  speaks  with  such  authority  on 
the  origin  and  evolution  of  all  pattern  that  we  do  well 
to  ponder  over  his  deductions.     He  writes: 

"  The  question  of  the  origination  of  patterns  at  one  or  more 
centres  has  been  as  disputed  as  the  origination  of  man  himself 
from  one  or  more  stocks.  Probably  some  patterns  have  been  re- 
invented in  different  ages  and  countries,  but  as  yet  we  have  far 
less  evidence  of  re-invention  than  we  have  of  copying.  It  is  easy 
to  presuppose  a  repeated  invention  of  designs,  but  we  are  con- 
cerned with  what  has  been,  and  not  with  what  might  have  been. 
Practically  it  is  very  difficult  or  almost  impossible  to  point  out 
decoration  which  is  proved  to  have  originated  independently,  and 
not  to  have  been  copied  from  the  Egyptian  stock.  The  influences 
of  the  modes  of  work  in  weaving  have  had  much  to  do  with  the 
uniformity  of  patterns  in  different  countries;  apparently  starting 
from  different  motifs,  the  patterns,  when  subject  to  the  same 
structural  influences,  have  resulted  in  very  similar  ornaments. 
This  complicates  the  question  undoubtedly ;  and  until  we  have 
much  more  research  on  the  history  of  design,  and  an  abundance 
of  dated  examples,  it  will  be  unsafe  to  dogmatize  one  way  or  the 
other.  ...  So  far,  however,  as  evidence  at  present  goes,  it  may 
be  said  that — in  the  old  world  at  least — there  is  a  presumption 
that  all  the  ornament  of  the  types  of  Egyptian  designs  is  lineally 
descended  from  those  designs.  Mr.  Goodyear  has  brought  so 
much  evidence  for  this,  that— whether  we  agree  with  all  his  views 
or  not — his  facts  are  reasonably  convincing  on  the  general  descent 
of  classic  ornament  from  Egyptian,  and  of  Indian  and  Mohamme- 


298  THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 

dan  from  the  classical,  and  even  of  eastern  Asian  design  from 
Mohammedan  sources.  A  good  illustration  of  the  penetrating 
effect  of  design  is  seen  in  a  most  interesting  work  on  the  prehis- 
toric bronzes  of  Minusiusk  in  central  Asia,  near  the  sources  of  the 
Yenesei  River,  and  equidistant  from  Russia  and  from  China,  from 
the  Arctic  Ocean  and  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Here  in  the  very 
heart  of  Asia  we  might  look  for  some  original  design.  But  yet  it 
is  easy  to  see  the  mingled  influences  of  the  surrounding  lands,  and 
to  lay  one's  finger  on  one  thing  that  might  be  Norse,  or  another 
that  might  be  Chinese,  or  another  Persian.  If,  then,  the  tastes  of 
countries  distant  one  or  two  thousand  miles  in  different  directions 
can  be  seen  moulding  an  art  across  half  a  continent,  how  much 
more  readily  can  we  credit  the  descent  of  design  along  the  well- 
known  historical  lines  of  intercourse." 

How  refreshing  are  the  opinions  of  the  erudite, 
whether  we  agree  with  them  or  not.  They  clear  the 
atmosphere,  and  help  us  either  to  give  up  treasured 
ideas  which  are  largely  speculative  because  when 
weighed  in  the  balance  they  are  found  wanting,  or 
else  they  force  us  into  a  stronger  belief  in  that  which 
we  are  willing  to  indorse  with  all  the  intelligence  we 
possess.  The  great  thinkers  of  the  world  have  as  yet 
too  little  material  and  data  with  which  to  work.  Ex- 
cavations are  but  begun;  the  "  dated  specimens"  to 
which  Dr.  Petrie  alludes  are  not  sufficient  to  establish 
fact.  All  the  more  is  there  need  of  individual  interest 
and  research.  All  the  more  should  even  the  most 
casual  student  insist  upon  the  absolute. 


r 


MAP    OJ 


3 I  A. 


VITALITY     IN    PRIMITIVE    DESIGNS  299 


w 
p 

< 

W 

Pi 

w 

s 

H 

V- 
sa 


- 
■J 
►J 


K 
PQ 

O 


- 

z 


INDEX 


Abbas,  Shah,  172,  183,  229 

Abd-ul-Aziz,  293 

Abraham,  21,  9V,  120 

Adventitious  ornaments,  8G 

Afghan  rugs,  9,  219,  220 

Age,  methods  of  testing,  46,  57 

Agra,  carpets, 236;  castle,  237;  mosque 
at,  238;  Taj  Mahal,  230 

Akbar,  Emperor,  229,  237 

Aldrich,  Anne  Reeve,  poem  l)3T,  19 

Alexander  the  Great,  1,  80 

Alexandrine  weave,  86 

Allah,  name  woven  in  rugs,  285;  the 
ninety-nine  beautiful  names  of,  18, 
279 

Almond  in  design,  200 

Alphabets  in  design,  283 

Anatolian  rugs,  9,  94,  102 

Angels,  Mohammedan,  157 

Angular  hook  pattern,  4,  5 

Aniline  dyes,  41,  46 

Animal  deities,  208,  209 

Ankh,  the,  296,  297 

Antique  rugs,  200 

Application  of  colour,  45 

Applique  decoration,  97,  98 

Arabic  numerals,  285,  286 

Arabic  writing,  287 

Arab  rugs,  118 

Ararat,  151,  153 

Ardebil  rugs,  301 

Armenian  church,  100 

Armenian  patchwork,  36 

Ail, Assyrian,  133,  131,  245;  Babylonian, 
134;  Buddhist,  68, 69;  Chinese,  70, 
213,  245;  East  Indian,  245;  Euro- 
pean, 261;  Hindu,  230,  234;  Indian, 
228,  245;  Japanese,  70,  245;  Moham- 
medan, 110,  230:  Mongolian,  81; 
Persian,  172;  Rhodian,  98,  102,  108 


Arts,  interdependent,  105 

Asia,  classic  Greek  ornament  in,  80; 
influence  of  Christianity  on  or- 
nament of,  74;  textiles  of  western, 
98 

Asia  Minor,  95;  embroideries  from,  96; 
rugs  from,  48,  105,  119,  120 

Asiatic  Society,  Reports  of,  22 

Assyrian  art,  133,  134,  245 

Assyrian  daisy,  69 

Azerbiajau  rugs,  201 

Babylonian  art,  133,  134 

Bagdad  strips,  53 

Ball,  and  claw,  261 ;  held  by  dragon,  257 

Baluchistan  rugs,  52,  220 

Basket  motif,  68 

Bats  in  design,  226 

Beads,  use  of,  11,  262,  263 

Beauty,  forms  of,  177 

Bedouins,  2 

Bells,  used  to  stir  spirit-spaces,  92 

Benjamin,  S.  G.  W.,  Minister  to  Persia, 

206,  21 1 
Bethlehem,  star  of,  69 
Blankets,  Navajo,  32 
Bobbins,  50 
Bokhara,  embroideries,  214;    rugs,   9, 

48,  209,  213,  215,  221,  222 
Bookwalter,  Mr.,  cited,  216,  217 
Border  designs,  archaic,  257 
Borders,  poem  upon,  290 
Border  stripes,  106,  167,  222 
Botticelli,  Alessandro,  36 
I'.mindaries,  geographical,  62 
Bouquet,  in  design,  200;  Mohammed's, 

200 
Bow-knot,  296 
Brahminism,   233,   237 
Brahmin  rosary,  269 

LIBRARY 
:TATB  TMCHEW  OOLLBOiA 
TA    SAMARA.   CALIFORNIA 


3°2 


THE   ORIENTAL    RUG  BOOK 


Buddha,  eight  attitudes  of,  08;  hand  of, 

226;  lotus  throne  of,  260;  paradise 

of,  250 
Buddhism,  67,  237;  Chinese,  68,  81,  273; 

Mongolian,  69;  Thibetan,  250 
Buddhist  art,  in  China,  68;  in  India,  69; 

in  Thibet,  69 
Buddhist  praying-wheel,  127 
Buddhist  rosary,  272 
Buddhist  symbols,  68 
Buddhist  use  of  lotus,  244,  248 
Burton,  Sir  Richard,  123 
Butterflies  in  design,  226,  246 
Byzantine  influence  in  design,  99 


Cabistan  (Kabistan)  rugs,  160,  165 

Calcutta  rugs,  234 

Calendar,  137 

Calligraphy,  231,  284 

Camel's-hair,  antique,  35 

Canopy  motif,  68 

Carabagh  (Karabagh)  rugs,  168 

Caravan,  the  great,  124 

Caravans,  description  of,  123 

Carpet,  holy,  travel  of  the,  120 

Carpets,  Agra,  236;  Chinese  wool,  224; 
famous,  14, 172, 181, 182;  jail-made, 
236;  knot,  33,  34,  55,  56,  193,  224; 
Lahore,  236;  Turkey,  10 

Cartouches,  286,  287 

Cashmere,  Vale  of,  77 

Cashmere  (Kashmir)  rugs,  161, 168 

Caste  in  India,  233 

Caucasian  rugs,  159,  161-163 

Celtic  design,  295 

Ceremonial  life  in  India,  233 

Chaldean  motifs,  433 

Chaldeans,  ensoph  of  the,  97 

Chart  system  of  study,  25 

Chichi  (Tchetchen  or  Tzitzi)  rugs,  170 

Chin,  or  pearl  of  the  dragon,  258 

China,  Buddhist  art  in,  68;  claims  of, 
58,  80;  dragon  in,  254,  255;  the 
eight  Immortals  of,  252,  259;  the 
lotus  in,  249 

Chinese  art,  70,  213 

Chinese  Buddhism,  81,  273 


Chinese  Buddhist  ornament,  68 

Chinese  carpets,  224 

Chinese  direction  and  colour  system, 

42,  209 
Chinese  dragon,  254-257,  260 
Chinese  Imperial  yellow,  40 
Chinese  ornament,  213 
Chinese  philosophy,  210 
Chinese  rosary,  273 
Chinese  rugs,  212,  222-227,  261,  296 
Chinese  wool  carpets,  224 
Chintzes,  Ispahan,  178 
Christianity,  influence  of,  on  ornament 

in  Asia,  74 
Christian  symbols  and  designs,  74,  92, 

100,  135 
Circles,  winged,  127 
Clappers,  used  to  stir  spirit-spaces,  92 
Classic  Greek  ornament  in  Asia,  80 
Claw  and  ball,  261 
Clipping  of  pile,  56,  166,  194 
Cloud  forms,  156,  212,  227,  255 
Colour,  application  of,  4.";  of  elements, 

39;  symbolism  of,  38,  42,  43 
Colouring,  primitive  methods  of,  41 
Colours,  in  Afghan  and  Khiva  rugs, 

219;  sacred,  40,  285 
Comb,  emblem  of  Moslem  faith,  19,  29 
Commercialism,  influence  of,  294 
Compass,  18,  43 
Cone,  145,  146,  200 
Conquest,  Mohammedan,  181 
Constellations  in  designs,  156,  221 
Constructional  ornament,  86 
Consular  Reports,  22 
Conventional  ornament,  86 
Corea,   heraldic  crest  of,  70 
Cossacks,  169 
Cotton  in  warp  and    woof,   160,   165, 

191,  195,  235 
Crenellations,  14,  133 
Crest,  heraldic,  of  Corea  and  Japan,  70 
Cross,  square,  69 
Cross-stitch  embroideries,  102 
Crown-jewel  in  design,  200 
Curzon,  Lord,  on  Persian  gardens,  175 
Cut-work,  98 
Cypress-tree,      19,    42,    135,   142,    144, 

173,  174 


INDEX 


303 


Daghestan  rugs,  1C3,  164 

Daisy,  Assyrian,  69 

D'Alviella,  Count,  81 

Damascus  tiles,  98 

Date,  fertilization  of  the,  177 

Dates  woven  in  rugs,  285 

David,  shield  or  signet  of,  72,  101,  118 

Decoration,  applique,  97,  98 

Deities,  animal,  208 

Derbend  rugs,  103,  165 

Desert  rugs,  10 

Design,  alphabets  in,  283;  archaic,  127; 
ball  and  claw,  261;  bats  in,  226; 
border,  257;  butterflies  in,  226; 
Byzantine,  99;  Celtic,  295;  Chinese, 
208,  209,  227,  261;  Christian,  74,  92, 
100,  135;  cloud,  156,  212,  227;  con- 
stellations in,  156,  221;  detail  of 
finish  in  Indian,  228;  evidence  of 
thought  in,  84;  floral,  13,  10,  176; 
fungus  in,  157;  galley  and  water- 
craft,  5;  geometric,  4,  6,  85,  116, 
181,  162;  Hebrew,  106,  118;  influ- 
ence of  elements  on,  39,  40;  in 
tents,  2,  4,98;  link,  103,  167;  octa- 
gon, 6, 104,  208,  209;  Pagan,  100,  135; 
poinds  of  compass  as  influencing, 
43;  primitive,  294;  Saruk,  203; 
Scandinavian,  127;  Scutari,  51; 
spiral,  103;  the  triangle,  103;  Turk- 
ish, 99,  100;  two  periods  in,  296 

Destiny,  knot  of,  68,  295 

Diagrams,  eight,  211,  212 

Directions,  the  Chinese  five.  209 

Divisions,  five  geographical,  29,  61,  62; 

eight,  of  Caucasian  rugs,  163 
Doorga,  Hindu  goddess,  247 
Dorje,69 

Dorians  as  sun-worshippers,  107 
Dowry  rugs,  7,  11,  2S6,  287 
Dragon,  809;  ball  held  by,  257;  Chinese, 
254-257,  260,  261 ;  in  Indian  and  Per- 
sian rugs,  261 ;  in  Samarkand  and 
Yarkand  rugs,   225;  in  Turkestan 
rufjs,  261;  Japanese,  256.  260;  nine 
children  of  the,  260;  pearl  held  by, 
258;  Saint  (ieorge  and  the,  100,  254; 
Tartar,  255 
Dragon  king  under  the  sea,  256,  201 


Dragons,   celestial,    256;     cloud,    255; 

water,  259 
Dyes,  aniline,  41,  46;  corrosive,  45 

Eagle,  137, 138 

Earth,  sacred,  29, 170 

East  India  Company,  the,  229 

East  Indian  ornament,  104 

East  Indian  rugs,  230 

Ecbatana,  181 

Egyptian  lotus,  204,  245 

Eight  diagrams,  the,  211,  212 

Eight  divisions,  of  Caucasian  rugs,  163; 
of  location,  208 

Eight  emblems  of  Chinese  Buddhist 
ornament,  68 

Eight  Immortals  of  China,  252,259 

Elemental  ideas,  91 

Elements,  influence  of,  on  design,  39,  40 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  229 

Emblems,  Buddhist,  68;  Mohammedan, 
18,  19,  29;  philosophical,  210 

Embroideries,  Asia  Minor,  96;  Bo- 
khara, 214;  Greek  and  Russian 
(cross-stitchl,  102;  Khiva,  213 

Ensoph  of  the  Chaldeans,  97 

Epic  poems,  Hindu,  233 

Equilateral  triangle,  6,  101,  119 

Ethnological  Reports,  22 

European  art,  261 

European  methods  in  the  East,  229 

Evil  eye,  11,  12,  117 

Evil  forces,  animals  controlling  good 
and,  209 

Examining  rugs,  two  ways  of,  109 

Fabrics,  Persian,  180 

Feather  in  design,  200 

Felt  rugs,  31 

Frii'i-sliiti,  259 

Fenollosa,  Mary  McNeil,  poem  by,  252 

Feraghan  rugs,  191,  202 

Ferguson,  James,  152 

Fertilization  of  the  date,  177 

Fillet,  the,  227,  297 

Finish  in  Indian  design,  detail  of,  228 

Firdusi,  181 

Fire-altars,  74 

Fire-worshippers,  173,  182,  187,  188 


3°4 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


Fish,  twin,  68 

Five  directions  of  the  Chinese,  42,  209 

Five  divisions  of  the  rug-country,  29, 

61,62 
Flame  motif,  255 
Floral  designs,  13,  16,  68,  176 
Floral  symbolism,  16 
Forces,  animals  controlling  good  and 

evil,  209 
Forms  of  beauty,  177 
Fringe,  52 

Fringed-tail  turtle,  261 
Fuh,  or  happiness,  226 
Fuh-hi,  209,  211 
Fujiyama,  155 
Functional  ornament,  86 
Fung-hwang,  209 
Fungus  in  design,  157 

Galleys  and  water-craft  designs,  5 

Garden  rugs,  174 

Gardens  of  the  Orient,  14,  15,  174,  175, 
239 

Gem,  137,  138 

Genii,  157 

Geography  of  the  rug,  59 

Geometric  design  and  ornament,  4,  6, 
85,  116,  131,  162 

Ghileem  (Khilim)  rugs,  9,  11,  21,  32, 
51,53 

Ghiordez  knot,  56 

Ghiordez  rugs,  48,  56,  105,  106,  109,  112 

Oohei  of  Japan,  76 

Gokcha,  Lake,  151,  162 

Golden  profession,  284 

Good  and  evil  forces,  animals  con- 
trolling, 209 

Good  luck  (show),  226 

Gorevan  rugs,  181,  198,  199 

Grave  rugs,  16 

Greek  embroideries,  102 

Greek  ornament  in  Asia,  80 

Green,  sacred  colour,  285 

Grotesque  in  Hindu  ornament,  233,  234 

Hadji,  title  for  pilgrim  to  Mecca,  120 
Hafiz,  181,  182 
Hamadan  rugs,  195,  203 
Hand  of  Buddha,  226 


Happiness,  or  fuh,  226 

Hearth-rugs,  10,  12 

Hebrew  symbols,  97 

Hebrew  thought  in  design,  106,  118 

Heraldic  crest  of  Corea  and  Japan,  70 

Herati  pattern,  190-192 

Herat  rugs,  190 

Herez  rugs,  199 

Hieroglyphs,  283 

Hindu  art,  230,  234 

Hindu  epic  poems,  233 

Hindu  ornament,  228,  232-234 

Hispano-Moresque,  99 

Historic  ornament,  85,  87,  201.  203 

Holy  carpet,  travel  of,  120-128 

Hooked  swastika  pattern,  167 

Hook  pattern,  angular,  4,  5 

Hoshino-tama,  259 

Hospitality,  sanctity  of,  13 

Host-rugs,  10,  13 

Hue,  fivariste  Regis,  250 

Hunting-rugs,  10,  13, 177 

Hymns,  Vedic,  234 

Ideas,  primitive,  91 ;  world,  89 

Ideographs,  283 

Imitation  different  from  reproduction, 
203 

Immortals,  the  eight,  of  China,  252,  259 

India,  Brahmanism  in,  233,  237;  Bud- 
dhism in,  237;  Buddhist  art  in,  69; 
caste  system  in,  233;  ceremonial 
life  in,  233;  modern  brain-control 
of  natives  in,  232,  235;  Mohamme- 
dan art  in,  230;  the  rosary  in,  262 

Indian  art,  228 

Indian  rugs,  228,  230,  235,  246,  261 

Indians,  Zuni,  43 

Indian  ware,  147 

Irak  rugs,  201 

Iran  rugs,  48,  179,  180 

Iridescence  in  rugs,  99 

Isis,  girdle  of,  296 

Ispahan  chintzes,  178 

Ispahan  rugs,  69,  157,  178,  182-184 

Ispahan  styles  in  Persian  rugs,  183 

Jade,  38,  39 
Jail-made  carpets,  236 


INDEX 


3°5 


Japan,  heraldic  crest  of,  70 
Japanese  art,  70 
Japanese  dragon,  256,  260 
Japanese  gohti,  76 
Japanese  rosary,  264 
Japanese  rugs,  225 
Japanese  thunder-god,  70 
Jehan,  Shah,  230,  239 
Jewish  symbols,  97 
Joo-e  sceptre,  157 
Jute,  31 

Kaaba,  the,  120,  121 
Kabistan  (Cabistan)  rugs,  165 
Karabagh  (Carabagh)  rugs,  168 
Kara  Dagh  rugs,  201 
Kashan  rugs,  201 
Kashgar  rugs,  222,  227 
Kashmir  (Cashmere)  rugs,  161,  168 
Kaweh,  story  of,  189 
Kazak  rugs,  169,  170 
Kchatchli-Bokhara  rugs,  218,  219 
Kermanshah  rugs,  201 
Khilim  rugs,  !),  21,  32,  51,  53 
Khiva  embroideries,  213 
Khiva  rugs,  9,  48,  207,  219 
Khorassan  rugs,  192,  193 
Kirman  rugs,  69,  184,  188 
Kirrnan  shawls,  184 
Kiswah,  or  covering  for  the  Kaaba,  121 
Kiz-Killeem  (Kiz-Khilim)  rugs,  11 
Knot  carpets,  83,  34,  55,  56,  193,  224 
Knot  of  destiny,  68,  295 
Knots,  bow,  296;  Gthiordez,  56;  num- 
ber to  square  inch,  33,  34 
Kodaks  in  the  Orient,  152 
Konieh  rugs,  HI 

Koran,  sentences  of,  in  rugs,  287 
Kuban  rugs,  165 

Kulah  rugs,  17.  48,  94,  105,  112,114 
Kurdish  rugs,  133 
Kurdistan  rugs,  188,  131,  194 
Kuan-Yin,  201 

Ladik  rugs,  94,  102, 105 
Lahore  carpets,  236 
Lakes,  region  of  three,  51,  163 
Lake  Urumiah,  151,  102,  201 


Lake  Van,  151,  162 

Lamas,  lotus-prayer  of  the,  250 

Leaf-forms,  144, 150 

Life,  tree  of,  140 

Link-iu-lozenge  pattern,  103, 167 

Location,  eight  divisions  of,  208 

Looms,  50;  silk,  first  used  in  China,  208 

Lotus,  the,  its  forms,  legends,  symbol- 
ism, use  in  design,  etc.,  19,  68,  69, 
81,  182-184,  186,  191,  204,  242,  244- 
246,  248-252,  260 

Lotus  prayer,  the,  250 

Lozenge,  link-in-,  103, 167 

Lozenge  forms,  212 

Luck,  good  (shoic),  226 

Lung,  the  dragon  of  China,  260 

Lustre,  metallic,  99 

Magdaism,  74 

Marks,  tribal,  208 

Materials,  31 

Mats,  reed,  32 

Meander,  early  handling  of,  106 

Mecca,  18,  125;  pilgrimage  to,  77,  120; 

rugs,  125,  126;  sacred  earth  from, 

29,  170;   sacred  stone  of,  120 
Medallion,  design  in,  69,  81,  182-184 
Melhaz  (Melace  or  Milez)  rugs,  94,  105, 

114 
Meshed  rugs,  201 
Metal  in  rugs,  58 
Metallic  lustre,  99 
Methods  of  approaching  rug  for  study, 

109 
Methods  of  cheapening  rugs,  57 
Methods  of  testing  rugs,  33 
Migration,   of   pattern,   75,  77,   80;  of 

symbols,  81 
Mihrab,  the,  18 
Milez  (Melace  or  Melhaz)  rugs,  94,  105, 

114 
Mohammedan,  spot  on  which  he  rests 

his  head  in  prayer,  102 
Mohammedan  angels,  157 
Mohammedan  art,  116,  230 
Mohammedan  conquest,  181 
Mohammedan  emblems,  18,  19,  29 
Mohammedan  influence  in  textile  art, 

73,  157 


}o6 


THE   ORIENTAL    RUG  BOOK 


Mohammedanism,  72 
Mohammedan  ornaments,  71 
Mohammedan  prayer-rugs,  161 
Mohammedan  rosary,  18,  277 
Mohammedan  rule  in  Persia,  173,  181 
Mohammedan  worship,  emblems  used 

in,  18, 19,  29 
Mohammed's  bouquet,  200 
Mongolian  art,  81,  212,  227,  255 
Mongolian  influence  in  Daghestan  pat- 
terns, 1G4 
Mordants,  46 

Mosaic  style  of  weaving,  57,  111 
Moslem  faith,  sacred  cities  of  the,  182 
Moslem  symbols,  18,  19,  29 
Mosque  rugs,    11,  13,  16 
Mosques,  at  Agra,  238;  at  Mecca,  120 
Mosul  rugs,  133 

Motifs,  Assyrian,  133;  Babylonian,  133; 
Chaldean,  133;  Chinese  Buddhist, 
68;    cloud,    156,     212,    227,     255; 
flame,  79,  127,  173,  255;  link,   103, 
167;  rain,   79;  Scutari,  51;  S  form, 
167;  spiral,  103;  star,   79,  127;  sun, 
79, 103, 127;  tree,  197;  umbrella,  68; 
urn,  68;  wave  or  water,  4, 13,  255; 
wheel,  127;  winged  circle,  127 
Mountains,  sacred,  153-155 
Mount  Sumeru,  155 
Mythological  design  in  Ispahan  rugs, 

183 
Myths,  star,  156 

Names  op  Allah,  279 

Nap,  long  and  short,  35 

Natural  colour  of  wool  in  rugs,  41,  195 

Naturalistic  ornament,  86,  116 

Navajo  blankets,  32 

Needles,  50 

Nomad  weavers,  87,  182,  216, 

Norse  design,  127,  295 

Number,  sacred,  211 

Numerals,  Arabic,  285,  286 

Objects,  ceremonial  art,  233 
Octagon  in  design,  6,  104,  208,  209 
Opus  consuetum,  36 
Oriental  gardens,  14,  15,  174,  175,  239 


Oriental  rug  a  thing  of  sentiment,  1, 
10,27 

Ornament,  Buddhist,  68;  caligraphic, 
231;  Chinese,  85,  87,  201,  203,  213; 
Chinese  Buddhist,  68 ;  classic 
Greek,  80;  constructional,  86;  con- 
ventional, 86;  East  Indian,  104; 
functional,  86;  geometric,  4,6,85, 
116,  131;  Greek,  80;  Hindu,  228, 
232-234;  influence  of  Christianity 
on  Asiatic,  74;  in  tents,  4,  98; 
Mongolian,  255;  naturalistic,  86, 
116;  of  adventition,  86;  Saracenic, 
73;  tufts  as,  36 

Ouchak  rugs,  115 

Pagan   symbols  and  designs,  100,  135 

Pa-hsien,  or  eight  Immortals  of 
China,  252,  259 

Palace  rugs,  14 

Pall  of  R.  L.  Stevenson,  8 

Palm-leaf  in  design,  145,  147,  148,  200 

Paradise,  Buddhist,  250;  lotus  on  the 
sea  of,  249;  Mohammedan,  15; 
Mongolian  idea  of,  157 

Patchwork,  36 

Pattern,  angular  hook,  4,  5;  grains  of 
rice,  225;  migration  of,  75,  77,  80; 
Y,  212,  227 

Patterns,  border,  64,  87,  88;  Herati, 
190-192;  hooked  swastika,  167; 
Persian,  copied  in  India,  230,  233, 
240;  reciprocal  trefoil,  167;  Sara- 
band, 200;  sceptre  in,  212;  study 
of,  295;  symbolic,  89,  241;  taran- 
tula, 167;  tree,  167;  tribal,  64,  87, 
88,  133,  208;  Turcoman  in  Persian 
rugs,  180;  Turkish,  100;  wave,  4, 
13,255 

Peacock  throne,  230,  239 

Pear  in  design,  200 

Pearl  held  by  dragon,  258,  259 

Pearl  pattern,  212 

Persepolis,  181 

Persia,  cypress  tree  of,  142,  144;  gar- 
dens of,  14,  15,  174;  knot-carpets 
of,  56,  58,  180,  193;  legendary  his- 
tory   of,    189,   190;    Mohammedan 


INDEX 


3°7 


rule  iu,  173,  181;  periods  of  art  in, 

172 

Persian  fabrics,  180 

Persian,  or  Sinneh  (Senna),  knot  car- 
pets, 56,  193 

Persian  patterns,  230,  233,  240 

Persian  knot  of  destiny,  295 

Persian  prayer-rug,  poem  by  Anna 
Reeve  Aldrich  on  a,  19 

Persian  rugs,  183,  202,  261 

Philosophical  emblems,  210 

Philosophy,  Chinese,  210 

Pile,  clipping  of,  56,  166,  194 

Pilgrimages,  to  Mecca,  120;  to  seven 
holy  cities  of  Mohammedan  faith, 
122 

Plum-red,  in  Yomud  rugs,  222 

Poems,  Hindu  epic,  233;  on  a  Persian 
prayer-rug,  19;  upon  borders,  290 

Poetry  of  rug-making,  6 

Points  of  compass  as  influencing  de- 
sign, 43 

Pomegranate  design  in  medallion,  69 

Potter's  wheel   invented   in  China,  208 

Prayer,  descriptions  of  methods  of,  75; 
lotus,  350 

Prayer-niche  in  rugs,  112,  219 

Prayer-rugs,  16-19,  160,  161,  219,  220 

Prayer-wheels,  76,  127 

Primary  colours  in  rugs,  47 

Primitive  designs,  294 

Primitive  ideas,  91 

Propagation  vase.  851 

Protectives,  bead,  11,  263 

Puran,  translation  of  legend  from,  217 

Purity,  the  lotus  an  emblem  of,  215 

Rain  motif,  79 

Reciprocal  trefoil,  167 

Reed  mats,  32 

Rejeb,  weaving  by,  291 

Relief  surfaces,  36 

Religions,  66 

Reports,   Ethnological  and  Consular, 

82;  of  Asiatic  Society,  22 
Rhodian  art,  108 
Rhodian  pottery,  98,  102 
Rice  pattern,  225 
River-loop,  200 


Robinson,  Vincent,  22 

Roman  Catholic  rosary,  281 

Rosary,  Brahmin,  269;  Buddhist,  272; 
Chinese,  273;  Indian,  262;  Japa- 
nese, 264;  Mohammedan,  18,  277; 
of  Siva,  270;  Roman  Catholic,  281; 
Thibetan,  274 

Rose  gardens  of  Persia,  15 

Royal  patronage  of  weavers,  180,  183, 
229,  240 

Rug  country,  five  divisions  of  the,  29, 
61,  62 

Rug-making,  the  poetry  of,  6 

Rugs:  Afghan,  9,  219,  220;    Anatolian, 

9,  94,  102  ;  antique,  200;  Arab,  118; 
Ardebil,  201;  Asia  Minor,  48,  105, 
119,  120;  Azerbiajan,  201;  Baluchi- 
stan, 52,  220;  blue  and  white,  2S>; 
Bokhara,  9,  48,  209,  213-215,  221,  222; 
Cabistan,  100,  105;  Calcutta,  234; 
Carabagh,  168;  Cashmere,  161,  168; 
Caucasian,  159,  161,  163,  295;  Chi- 
chi (Tzitzi),  170;  Chinese,  212,  222- 
227,296;  Daghestan,  163,  164;  Der- 
bend,  163,  165;  desert,  10;  dowry, 
7,  11,  286,  287;  dragons  in,  225,  261; 
East  Indian,  228,230;  examination 
of,  109;  felt,  31;  Feraghan,  191, 
202;  fringe  of,  52;  garden,  174  ; 
geography  of,  59;  Ghileem,  11 ;  (see 
also  Khilim),  Ghiordez,  48,  56, 
105,  106,  109-112;  Gorwan,  181,  198, 
199;  grave,  10;  Hamadan,  195,  196, 
203;  hearth,  10,  12;  Herat,  190; 
Herez,  199;  host,    10,  13;   hunting, 

10,  13,  177;  Indian,  228.  230,  235,  840, 
261;  Irak,  201;  Iran,  48,  179.  180; 
iridescence  in,  'X>;  Ispahan,  69 
157,  17S,  182-184;  jail-made,  236; 
Japanese,  225;  Kabistan.  160,  165; 
Karabagh,  168;  Kara  Dagh,  801  : 
Kashan,  201;  Kashgar,  222,  227; 
Kashmir,  161,  168;  Kazak,  169,  170; 
Kchatchli-Bokhara,  21S,  219;  Ker- 
manshah,  201;  Khilim.  9,  11.  21,  32, 
51,  53;  Khiva,  9,  48,  807,  219;  Kho- 
rassan,  192;  kinds,  10-17;  Kirman, 
69,  184  188;  Ki/.-Khilim.  11:  Koni- 
eh,  94;   Kuban,  165;   Kulah,  47,  48, 


3°8 


THE 


ORI 


ENTAL    RUG     BOOK 


94,105,112-114;  Kurdish,  133;  Kur- 
distan, 133, 134,  194;  Ladik,  94,  102, 
105;  made  for  journey  to  Mecca, 
77;  made  for  princesses,  286;  made 
under  royal  patronage,  183;  Mec- 
ca, 125,  126;  Melace,  94,  105,  114 
Melhaz,  94,  105,  114;  meshed,  201 
metal  in,  58;  metallic  lustre,  99 
methods  of  cheapening,  57;  meth- 
ods of  studying,  109;  methods  of 
testing,  33;  Milez,  94,  105,  114; 
modern  and  antique,  203,  204 ;  Mo- 
hammedan  prayer,  161;  mosque, 
11,  13,  16;  Mosul,  133;  Ouchak,  115; 
palace,  14;  Persian,  19,  56,  58, 
180, 1&3, 193,  202,  261 ;  prayer,  16,  18, 
19,  160,  161,  220;  prayer-niche  in, 
112,  219:  primary  colours  in,  47; 
*  Samarkand,  222,  225,  261  ;  Sara- 
band, 200,  203;  Sarakh,  201;  Sehna, 
56,  193,  194:  shapes,  10-13;  Shem- 
aka,  53,  161-168;  Shiraz,  49,  52, 
196,197,201;  Shirvan,  160, 167;  silk, 
175,  286,  287;  Sinneh,  56,  193,  194; 
Sirab,  201;  Smyrna,  94;  Soumae, 
53,  161,  168;  styles  in,  27,  62,  79,  80, 
197;  Sultanabad,  201,  203;  Tabriz, 
185,  201-203;  Tchechen,  170;  Tehe- 
ran, 201;  Tekke,  216;  tent,  10,  12; 
throne,  11,  13,  202;  tribute,  87,  132; 
Turcoman,  69,  206,  212,  220;  Turk- 
estan, 216,  261;  Turkish,  59,  93,  94, 
97,  99,  100,  133;  Tzitzi,  170;  wed- 
ding, 12;  Yarkand,  222,  225,  227; 
Yomud,  221,  222 
Russian  embroideries,  102 

Sacred  cities,  182 

Sacred  colour,  285 

Sacred  earth,  29,  170 

Sacred  mountain,  153-155 

Sacred  number  ten,  211 

Sacred  stone  of  Mecca,  120 

Sacred  tree,  135,  150 

Saint  George  and  the  dragon,  100,  254 

Salaams,  or  thought-bouquets,  177, 184 

Samarkand,  152 

Samarkand  rugs,  222, 225,  261 


Saraband  pattern,  200 

Saraband  rugs,  200,  203 

Saracenic  conquest,  21 

Saracenic  ornament,  73 

Sarakh  rugs,  201 

Saruk  (Sarook)  designs,  203 

Scandinavian  design,  127 

Sceptre,  or  joo-e  wand,  157 

Sceptre  in  pattern,  212 

Scroll,  104,  212 

Scutari  motifs  of  design,  51 

Sea  of  Paradise,  the.  lotus  on  the,  249 

Seal  in  design,  200 

Seal,  or  signet,  of  Solomon,  72, 101 

Sehna  rugs,  56,  193 

Serpent  in  knot-design,  296 

S-form  motif,  167 

Shah  Abbas,  172,  183,  229 

Shah  Jehan,  230,  239 

Shalimer,  gardens  of,  239 

Shapes  of  rugs,  9  et  seq. 

Shawls,  Kirman,  184 

Shemaka  or  Soumae  rugs,  53,  161-168 

Shield  or  signet  of  David,  72,  101,  118 

Shintoism,  70 

Shiraz  rugs,  49,  52,  196,  197;  as  votive 
offerings,  197  ;  pile,  tree-motif, 
webbing  in,  191,  201 

Shirvan  rugs,  160,  167 

Show  (good  luck),  226, 

Shuttles  and  bobbins,  50 

Signet  of  David,  72,  101,  118;  of  Solo- 
mon,;^, 101 

Silk.  Sicilian,  103 

Silk  rugs,  175,  286,  287 

Sinneh  or  Persian  knot  carpets,  56,  193 

Sirab  rugs,  201 

Siva,  the  rosary  of,  270 

Sixteenth  century,  famous  carpets  of 
the,  14,  172,  181,  182 

Smyrna  rugs,  94 

Solomon,  King,  his  carpet,  18,  19; 
seal  of,  72,  101 

Soumae  or  Shemaka  rugs,  53,  161-168 

Spindles,  50 

Spindle-whorls,  53 

Spinning,  53 

Spinning  damsel,  story  of  the,  223 


. 


INDEX 


3°9 


Spiral  in  design,  103 

Spirit-spaces,  use  of  clappers  and  bells 

to  stir,  92 
Square  cross,  69 
Star  circles  and  bands,  156 
Star,  eight-pointed,  164;  of  Bethlehem, 

69;  six-pointed,  66,  97,  118 
Star  forms,  127,  216,  252 
Star  goddess,  223 
Star  myths,  156 
Stars,  effulgent  in  design,  166 
Stevenson,  R.  L.,  pall  of,  8 
Stone,  sacred,  of  Mecca,  120 
Stripes,  border,  106,  167,  222 
Strips,  Bagdad,  53 

Study,  chart    system  of,   25;  of  pat- 
tern, 295 
Styles,  great  world,  80;  in  Persian  rugs, 
197  ;    of  rugs,   five,  62,    79,  80  ;  of 
weaving,  27;  Sehna,  193,  194 
Sultanabad  rugs,  201,  203 
Sultan's  seal,  293 
Sumeru,  Mount,  155 
Sun-boat,  91,  128 

Sun  in  Turcoman  designs,  213,  219 
Sun-worshippers,  107,  127 
Susa,  181 
Swastika,    68,    80,    82,    127,    227;    the 

hooked,  167 
Symbolic  patterns,  89,  241 
Symbolism  of  colour,  38,  42,  43 
Symbols,  Buddhist,   68;   Christian,   74. 
98,  100,  186;  floral,  16;  Jewish,  97; 
migration  of,  81 ;  of  Moslem  faith, 
18,  19,  29;  origin  of,  68;  Pagan,  100, 
135 


Tabriz  rugs,  185,  201-203 

Tae-kieh,orYangand  Ving,  71,  209,  211 

Taj  Mahal.  Agra,  830 

Tand  Y  forms,  227 

Talismans,  11,  12 

Tamerlane,   or  Timur-Leng,  mosque 

and  tomb  of,  158,  212 
Tarantula  pattern.  167 
Tartar,  dragon  connected  with  reign 

of  111.',  '.'.o 


Tartar  influence  in  Turcoman  rugs,  213 

Tats,  Japanese  dragon,  260 

Tchechen  (Tzitzi),  rugs  70 

Teheran  rugs,  201 

Tekke  or  Turcoman  rugs,  69,  206,  212- 

220 
Temples,  rugs  in,  8 
Ten,  the  sacred  number,  211 
Tent,  of  Abraham,  21 ;    of  Alexander, 

1 
Tents,  Bedouin,  2;   designs  worked  in 
canvas  of,  2,  4,  98;  Oriental,  1,  126; 
ornamentation  of,  4,  98  ;  rugs  in,  1 
Tests  of  age,  46,  57 
Textiles  of  western  Asia,  98 
Thibet,  Buddhist  art  in,  69;  the  rosary 

of,  274 
Thibetan-Buddhist  lotus  prayer,  250 
Thought,  evidence  of ,  in  design,  84,  10B, 

118 
Thought-bouquets,  or  salaams,  177, 184 

Thought  patchwork,  36 
Throne,  peacock,  230,  239 
Throne-rugs,  11,  13,  202 
Thunder-god  of  Japan,  70 
Tide-jewel,  259 
Tiger,  white,  259 
Tiles,  Damascus,  98 
Time,  beads  as  records  of,  263 
Timur-Leng,  mosque  and  tomb  of,  152, 

212 
Tombs,  rock-cut,  19;  rugs  on,  8 
Tomoye,  70 
Tooba-tree,  15 

Tree,  137,  138;  cypress,  19,42,  135,  173, 
174;  of  life,    140;  pattern,  167,197; 
sacred,  135, 150;    tooba,  15  ;    wor- 
ship, 139 
Trefoil,  reciprocal,  167 
Trellis,  212 

Triangle,  in  design,  6,  101,  103,  119,  164 
Tribal  patterns,  64.  87,  88,  133,  208 
Tribute  rugs,  87,  132 
Trisula,  68 

Tufts  as  ornamentation,  36 
Tughra  of  Abd-ul-Aziz,  893 
Tukt  Tanas,  peacock  throne,  230,  239 
Turcoman  pattern,    180 


3io 


THE    ORIENTAL    RUG    BOOK 


Turcoman  rugs,  69,  206,  212, 220;  Tartar 

influence  in,  213 
Turkestan  rugs,  215;  dragon  forms  in, 

261, 
Turkey  carpets,  10 
Turkey  red,  48 
Turkish  designs,  99,  100 
Turkish  (or  Ghiordez)  knot,  56 
Turkish  religion,  97 
Turkish  rugs,  56,  93,  94,  97,  99,  100,  133 
Turtle,  fringed-tail,  261 
Twin  fish,  68 
Tzitzi  rugs,  170 

Umbrella  motif,  68 
Urashima,  261 
Urn  motif,  68 
Ursa  Major,  221 
Urumiah,  Lake,  151,  162,  201 

Van,  Lake,  151,  162 

Vase,  propagation,  251 

Vedic  hymn,  234 

Velvet,  Italian,  103;  origin  of,  224 

Votive  offerings,  rugs  as,  197 


War,  cause  of  migration  of  pattern,  80 
Warp  and  woof,  33,  50,  57,  58,  165,  194, 

195,  222,  229,  286;  cotton,  160,  165, 

191,  195,  235 
Water-craft  designs,  5 
Water-dragons,  259 
Wave  motif,  4,  13,  255 
Weave,  Alexandrine,  86 
Weavers,  nomad,  87,   182,  216;  royal 

patronage  of,  180,  183,  229,  240 


Weaving,  methods  of,  57,  111,  184,  216- 
218 ;  the  work  of  Rejeb,  291 

Webbing,  in  Shiraz  rugs,  197,  201; 
in  Turcoman  rugs,  220 

Wedding  rugs,  12 

Wheel,  the,  127  ;  the  potter's,  208 

Wheel  forms  derived  from  the  lotus,  252 

Wheel  of  the  law,  68 

Wheels,  prayer,  76,  127 

White  tiger,  259 

Wilson,  Thomas,  82 

Winged  circles,  127 

Wool,  differences  in,  32;  in  Kazak  rugs, 
170 ;  in  Kirman  rugs,  184  ;  natural 
colours  in,  41, 195;  white  in  Hama- 
dan  rugs,  196 

Wool  carpets  made  in  China,  224 

World  ideas,  89 

Worship,  sun,  127 

Writing,  Arabic,  287 

Yak's  hair,  235 

Y  and  T  forms,  227 

Yang  and  Yin,  orTae-kieh,  71,  209,211 
Yarkand  rugs,  222,  225,  227 
Yellow,  Imperial,  of  China,  40 
Yomud  rugs,  221,  222;  plum-red  in,  222 

Y  pattern,  212,  227 
Yung-Ching,  222 

Zigzag,  in  border  stripes,  106  ;  in  Per- 
sian carpets,  176 

Zodiac,  signs  of  the,  208 

Zoroastrianism,  or  fire-worship,  74, 173, 
181,  187, 188 

Zuui  Indians,  43 


.*    4 


K. 


\ 


*<V 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW. 


Series  9482 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


A  A      000  242  647    6 


4 


